SECTION I. Wines.

Wine becomes a real want of those who have once been acquainted with it. Happy or miserable, rich or poor, every body makes use of wine. Wine is the delight of the happy or of the rich: it helps the unfortunate to support his sorrow; the poor think they find it an equivalent for the food they are without.

Ease has lately been too general in the United States, not to have introduced the use of wine; and futurity, by augmenting their means, will only in­crease their want of this liquor.

The wines which were most generally consumed in the United States, were, as in England, Oporto, Madeira, and some from Spain. French wines, charged as in Britain, with enormous duties, were introduced by contraband only.

Liberty has caused those Britannic shackles to dis­appear. [Page 66] French wines are freely imported into the United States▪ and pay but little duty.

Such is the state of things, and it leads me to the dicussion of three questions:

Does it suit the United States to cultivate vines, and to make wine?

Ought they not, in renouncing this cultivation, to give the preference to French wines?

And what means ought the French to use, in order to obtain and preserve this preference?

It would be absurd to deny that the United States can produce wine, because the experiments hitherto made have been fruitless. Extended as they are, and having countries as southern as Europe, it is im­possible there should not be, in many places, a soil proper for the vine.

The little success of attempts may therefore, without hazarding too much, be attributed either to the ignorance of the cultivator, his want of perse­verance, or a bad choice of plants.

However that may be, if the Americans will hearken to the counsels of able observers, and reap advant [...]ge from the errors of other nations, they will carefully avoid the cultivation of vines. In every country where they have been cultivated, for one rich man, they have made a number wretched.

The long and considerable advances which vines require, the preparation, preservation, and sale of their produce, have put all the good vineyard plots into the hands of rich people, who not cultivating these themselves, pay the real cultivator very badly. The salary of the wretched vine-dresser is every where inevitably fixed; the time he does not work not being calculated, and few wine countries offer any employ by which lost time may be filled up; and otherwise, the variations in the prices of the most necessary commodities occasioned by a thousand [Page 67] causes, by the abundance or even scarcity of wine, are not considered for him.

Would it be believed, that abundance is the most unfortunate thing that can happen, either to the pro­prietor or the vine-dresser? In fact, the expence of gathering augments, and the price of the thing di­minishes. There is more work to be done, more hands are necessary, and they are paid more wages; more hogsheads are wanted, the expences of carriage greater, more space is required, the sale is less, and consequently the income. ^*

The scarcity of wines, or the sterility of the vine­yard, is perhaps less unfortunate than the abundance, at least to the proprietor. But it is cruelly felt by the vine-dresser, and those wandering troops of day labourers, whom the ingratitude of their soil, or a bad government, forces to go from home in search of employ.

The numerous variations which have an influence upon the produce of the vineyard, make it very in­convenient property, and triflingly advantageous. ^† [Page 68] The return must be wasted for when much has been gathered; payments must be made when there has been but little. The proprietor m [...]st therefore have other resources, whether it be to wait or to pay. The vine-dresser, unhappy enough to have a pro­perty, ^* without any of these resources, ruins him­self sooner or later. He is obliged to sell at a low price, ^† or to consume his wines himself; thence re­sults his stupidity and idleness, his discouragement, his dull and quarrelsome humour, and especially the ruin of his health. Too much wine in the time of abundance, no bread in that of scarcity; these are the two alternatives which divide his life.

Therefore countries covered with vineyards are generally less peopled, and present a picture of a de­generated, weak, and wretched population. For the most part they want hands to cultivate the vineyard in a season when work cannot be delayed. It is done by these bands of strangers, of whom I have [Page 69] already spoken, and who come to sell some days work to the poor vine-dresser.

The cultivation of a vineyard cannot be better compared than to those manufactures, of which the hopes of success are founded upon the low price of workmanship, and which enrich none but the under­takers, and retailers or shopkeepers.

The pernicious influence of the vine is extended, in wine countries, to even those who do not cultivate it; for the cheapness of wine leads to excesses, and consequently it becomes a poison for all ranks of society, for those especially who find in it a means of forgetting their sorrows.

Therefore, as I have already remarked, industry carefully avoids these dangerous vineyard plots. None of the great manufactures, whose success is the con­sequence of order, assiduity, and labour, are seen in the neighbourhood of them.

The result of all these observations is, that the Americans ought to proscribe the cultivation of the vine.

It would infallibly render miserable that class of society which should apply itself to it, and in a re­public there should be none who are wretched, be­cause want obliges them to disturb civil order, or, what is worse, because they are at the command of the rich, by whom they are paid, and who may make use of them to destroy republicanism. ^*

Considered with respect to the proprietors, the vine ought still to be proscribed by the United States; because every profession or calling, susceptible of too great a variation of fortune, which sometimes heaps up riches to one person, and at other reduces to indigence individuals in easy circumstances, ought [Page 70] carefully to be avoided.—Economy, simplicity, pri­vate virtues, are not attached to such changeableness.

They are found in the bosom of mediocrity only, from easiness of circumstances, founded upon that kind of toil whose produce is constant. ^* Such is that of agriculture in general; it embraces divers productions, which, in case of accident, replace each other. ^†

Finally, if it be insisted that wine is necessary to man, let it not stupify him; it should be used with moderation, and its dearness alone may oblige men to be moderate in the use of it. It being greatly the interest of the American Republics to remove all excesses from individuals, in order to prevent this degeneracy, they ought to keep perpetually at a dis­tance from them a production, whose dearness will prevent the abuse of it, whose cultivation would render it cheap, and consequently bring on dangerous excesses both to policy and morals. ^‡

The catalogue which I have just gone over, of the evils and abuses occasioned by the culture of vines, will not induce the French to pull up theirs. But it ought at least to excite them to increase in foreign [Page 71] markets the consumption of wines, in order to keep up their price, and consequently to diminish a part of the evils which they produce. This will be doubly advantageous, by an additional exterior pro­fit, and a diminution of interior ill. Nobody will deny that French wine [...] must obtain the preference in the United States. They are the most agreeable, the most varied, and who [...]esome, if moderately used; the least prejudicial, if used to excess. They ought to be the basis of our exportations to America; no nation can raise a competition with us. Lord Shef­field himself pays this homage to our wines; but in order to assure to them this advantage for ever, the art of making, preserving, and transporting them must be improved.

In general we are at present far from this: ^* igno­rance, old prejudices, discouragement of the people, impost on exportation; all concur to retard the pro­gress of improvement.

The United States (these states of so new a date) already furnish us the model of an institution, which alone would encourage the culture of corn and vines, [Page 72] and make the momentary inconvenience of abundant vintages, which ruin the proprietor and farmer, disappear.

This institution, easy to be naturalized in France, would have two branches, a deposit in the public magazines of the productions of the earth; certificate or billets of deposit which would form an authentic title for the disposing proprietor, transferable without formalities at the current price, like all other public effects.

It is thus, that in Virginia means have been found to supply the want of money, ^* and to give at the time of reaping, a real and useful value to tobacco, which, without that, waiting for a demand, lies heavy upon the proprietor.

This is not the place to examine this idea pro­foundly, neither to destroy the objections which will be made against it. This project may constitute the matter of a memoir by itself. I give here nothing more than the title. ^†

[Page 73]People in the United States complain of an abuse in the commerce of the French wines, which abuse it is of importance to remedy in the most speedy manner, if we would not destroy the commerce in its origin. Illicit commerce produced there before the revolution good Bourdeaux wine, because it is a property of smuggling to give that which is of superior quality, and at a cheaper rate.

Now, since the peace, wines sent from France have not been, as it is asserted, of a good quality. It is impossible that from greediness they may some­times have been adulterated. But this transient abuse, which the merchant may easily destroy when­ever he pleases, by choosing in the United States [Page 74] commissioners whose reputation is untouched; this abuse, I say, ought not to stop the exportations of France.—Wine, if it be good, will always find con­sumers.—Nothing but intelligence and sincerity are necessary to succeed in this, for nature has done the rest for France.

The Americans prefer, in general, the wine which is carried to them in bottles, because they believe it less subject to become sharp, or to change on the voyage. On the first view it seems advantageous to France to furnish its wines with this envelope, be­cause it is a new opening for its glass-ware. But if it be recollected, what a prodigious quantity of com­bustibles glass manufactures require, to the sensible destruction of forests, it appears imprudent to en­courage a commerce which cannot but augment it rapidly. At least, before it be encouraged, it would be necessary to have very certain accounts of the number of glass manufactories in the kingdom, of their consumption of wood and charcoal, of their produce and exportation, and, finally, of our forests and mines.

SECTION II. Brandy.

The rapid progress lately made in chymistry has discovered, in most of the fruits of the earth, the salts and spirits which constitute the essence of bran­dy; this discovery has been turned to advantage; there results from it a considerable abatement in the price of that liquor, that is to say, a very great evil; this proves, by the way, that there are discoveries in physics which should not be revealed without having first considered their moral and political ef­fects, and having indicated to government the means of preventing their inconveniencies; it also proves, [Page 75] that a chymist ought not to be a chymist only, but a politician also.

The brandies of France are generally locked upon as the best, that is to say, the most delicate and least pernicious: therefore they obtain the preference with people in easy circumstances.

A great deal of brandy is consumed by the com­mon people; but this is counter-balanced at home and abroad by spirits drawn from grain, fruit, or sugar.

Rum, which is produced from the latter, has had, and ever will have, in the United States, the pre­ference over our brandies, by reason of its cheap­ness. The American [...], especially the Bostonians, import melasses from the sugar islands, and distil it, and independently of their consumption, they re­sell a great part of it to the inhabitants of the same Islands, who cannot distil it for want of combustibles.

Beside rum, the Americans make strong spirits from grain, potatoes, &c. They are indebted for this to the Irish and Germans who have gone to settle in the United States. A pernicious present those emigrants have made them.

In Ireland the cheapness of spirits made from grain places them within the reach of the poorest man. The lowest classes of society use them to an incredible excess; and this excess contributes not a little to promote that quarrelsome humour which characterises the Irish, to plunge them into stupidity, and hinder them from rising to that degree of pros­perity to which the liberty of commerce they have lately obtained ought to carry them.

The Americans would already have experienced a part of that degradation of which the excessive use of strong liquors is the cause, if they were not almost all proprietors, in easy circumstances, and fathers of families; if instruction and morals were not more generally propagated among them than among any [Page 76] other people; and, finally, if the quick and consi­derable profits which workmen there obtain by the high price of workmanship, did not give them a salutary ambition which keeps them from intem­perance. ^*

Those of the United States, ^† where the people have gone from simple and primitive manners, where luxury begins to reign, where slavery still [Page 77] exists, are daily witnesses to the ravages caused by the excessive use of spirits made from grain. ^*

A long habit is difficult, and often impossible, to shake off, especially when it procures enjoyments. Therefore, it is not to be expected that the Ameri­cans will ever renounce the use of these liquors. The philosopher sighs at this; commercial nations, which turn to profit the misfortunes and caprices of mankind, strive to take advantage of it. France will have the advantage, ^† if she can reduce the price of brandies to the level of that of rum. Go­vernment, in order to aim at this point, has already perceived the necessity of lowering the duties on the exportation of these spirits.

But ought it to favour, with so much complaisance, the distillation and exportation of brandies? I do not think so; this new opinion seems to be a para­dox; it will cease to appear so, when it shall have been examined with attention.

The distillation of brandies cause a great decay of combustibles, one great evil in a country where combustibles daily become more rare. ^‡

[Page 78]The exportation of brandy produces but little to the revenue. To encourage this article, it has been necessary to take off the impost, which at present is no more than five sols per hogshead, whilst wine pays a duty of at least an hundred sols, and in the Bordelois, from that sum to twenty-eight livres. ^*

Government ought to have done the reverse, to have reduced the duties on wines, and augmented those upon brandies.

The exportation of brandies is prejudicial to the consumption of our wines, for it is the basis of all made wines in countries where wine is not produced. It is put into a great quantity of water▪ to which are added bay-berries, every where to be found. Wine brandies are indispensable in this fabrication; no other can supply their place, because they only can give to artificial wines the winy taste which is essen­tial to make them drinkable.

What immense gain to strangers in this process— and what loss to France! A barrel of brandy which pays a trifling duty on exportation, whose transport costs but little, on account of its contracted bulk, may be added to five or six barrels of water, which cost nothing, and by the aid of sugared ingredients, which give colours, may enter into competition with six barrels of wine, that pay considerable duties on exportation, and whose exportation and transport are very expensive.

Therefore, in distilling and exporting brandies, we work for the interest of our rivals: we give them an easy means of doing without our wines. What [Page 79] folly! What would people say of an alchymist, who, having found the philosopher's stone, should com­municate his secret to his rivals, who would make use of it to his prejudice.

And yet this operation, so prejudicial to France, has been favoured by government. It encourages distillers; that is, it raises up enemies against the meliorating vineyards and wines, and especially against the art of preserving the latter. It would be much more prudent and advantageous to discourage distilleries. In fact, the distillation of brandies is for the vineyard proprietor a last resource, which proves his ruin. ^*

SECTION III. Oils, Olives, dry Fruits, &c.

These articles are so many wants with the Ame­ricans of easy fortune, and especially those in the northern States. Our southern Provinces, which produce such delicious fruits, cannot in this respect fear any competition. They are also articles which have hitherto best succeeded in adventures made from Marseilles.

Moreover, all that Europe will be able to furnish of them, will find room in the United States; they [Page 80] will accompany our wines, and we can [...]oin with the same ease and certainty of sale, per [...]umeries, anchovies, verdigrease, &c. as well as an hundred other little things taken by the English from Mar­seilles, and of which they have created a want to the Americans.

Lord Sheffield, in his work, makes Spain, Por­tugal, and Italy, furnish the United States with these commodities. I wish he had been sincere enough to give the advantage to France. France is so ge­nerally known to sell these productions in the States of America, that it is equally astonishing this writer should have been ignorant of it, or silent upon the subject. This fact, by proving his partiality, ought to put readers upon their guard against his assertions.

SECTION IV. Cloths.

People governed by a free constitution are natu­rally grave and deliberate. They prefer, in every thing they use, goodness to elegance, what is solid to that which is subject to the caprices of mode. Therefore, as long as the independent Americans en­joy their excellent constitution, they will prefer clothes of cloth to those of the most brilliant stuffs.

Moreover, its beauty, pliancy, strength, and du­ration, render it more generally fit for this use in any climate whatsoever: cloth secures the body from the excesses of cold as well as from those of heat. It resists rain; in a word, it unites every conveni­ence; and if it be the universal clothing of people in a middling state, it offers equally to the rich, but reasonable man, a choice proper to satisfy his taste, and to proportion his expences to his means.

The manufacture of cloths is in the number of those complicated manufactures which employ throughout the year a great number of workmen by [Page 81] the day; therefore it will not be suitable to the Ame­ricans, so long as that class of men which produces these workmen shall be able to employ themselves more usefully in the clearing of lands, and in culti­vation in general.

A manufacture of woollen stuffs, proper for the clothing of the country proprietor, his family and servants, may, without doubt, be associated into the labours of the field; but manufactures of this kin [...], although very important in themselves, can only be applied to coarse and unfinished stuffs. The inter­rupted leisure of the peasant permits him to do no­thing which is complicated. Card, spin, weave, and bleach, is all that he can do. ^* If it be neces­sary for him to go beyond these, he will find a greater advantage in selling his raw materials, or even with their first preparations, if they be simple, and to draw from the manufactures, properly so called, the articles of which he is in need.

We owe little gratitude to those of our speculators who immediately after the peace dispersed our cloths in the United States. If one spark of public spirit had animated them, they would have perceived the precious and honourable service which they were able to render to their country in these first adven­tures, by giving to the Americans a great idea of the state of our manufactures. These people were well disposed, by the succour France had given them, to cherish its inhabitants, to esteem their cha­racter, and receive their productions. They were [Page 82] well disposed to abjure the contempt and aversion with which the English had inspired them for their rivals and their productions, and to give France the preference in every thing. Why has avarice, by a miserable calculation, rendered these good disposi­tions of no effect? Men were willing to gain, to gain greatly; to make what is called a good stroke, in taking advantage of the distress of the Americans, and forcing them to take those commodit [...]es which were unfit for every other market. ^*

This dishonesty has counterbalanced the service rendered them; for the imprudent and wretched young man, whose throat is cut by an [...] owes him no acknowledgment. A greater evil to France has been the consequence—her cloths have lost their reputation in the United States. But let the Ame­ricans undeceive themselves; let them not attribute to the nation the fault of a few individuals; let them not have a bad opinion of our cloths, because some bad ones have been sent to them. The same acci­dent would have happened to English cloths if, in a like case, there had been English merchants avarici­ous enough, and so far strangers to the public good, as to send their refuse to the United States. ^†

[Page 83]The Americans who come among us, study the nature of the intercourse which we shall one day have with the United States; they know that our manufacturers possess all the means which give to English cloths their reputation; that they make them in the same manner, and that the superfines are su­perior to those of England; that in general dying is better understood with us, and carried to greater perfection: in short, that it depends but on some circumstances easy to be got over, to make the cheap­ness of our workmanship assure us the preference to the English with respect to cloths.

Lord Sheffield, in avowing the superiority of our fine cloths, and of their cheapness, observes, that the greatest consumption of the Americans is of common cloths, with respect to which France cannot enter into a competition with England. And he draws from it this consequence, that the inconveni­ence of dividing the demands to compose assort­ments, and the consideration of the small quantity of fine cloth necessary to form them, will cause these to be ordered in England, notwithstanding the ad­vantage there would be in getting them from France.

But why should we not furnish common cloths to the United States, since the labour of our manu­facturers is cheaper than that of England? It is be­cause the English wool is cheaper than ours. The English grow their own wool, and stand in no need [Page 84] of foreign wool, except a little Spanish, indispen­sable to superfine cloths. On the contrary, we im­port more than half of the wool we manufacture into cloth. M. la Platiere says there are thirty-five millions of sheep kept in Great-Britain, each of which, he affirms, produces on an average at least six pounds of wool. It is the breed of sheep which gives to England such an amazing superiority over all other nations in her woollen manufactures. France ought to encourage the breed of sheep and the destruction of wolves. ^* M. la Platiere saw this evil, and had courage to publish it in the Encyclo­pediae Methodique. Platiere was called a man of pretensions. The same title was given to Dr. Price in London, when he predicted the loss of the Colo­nies. The ministerial heads of that country laughed at the prophet, but the event proved he was right.

SECTION V. Linens.

There are two principal species of linen-drapery, which are subdivided into a multitude of others.

The first species contains linen properly so called; that is to say, linen which serves to make shirts, sheets, table linen, and all the linen made use of for every purpose of cleanliness.

These linens are made with hemp, flax, or cotton; this last article is employed when the two former ones are scarce: it is sometimes mixed with flax.

[Page 85]The manner of making these linens is very sim­ple; they are made in all parts of Europe. ^* Those countries where religious or political despotism di­scourages industry; where the numerous institutions of charity, invented to divert the attention of de­spair from misery, nourish idleness; these countries are the only ones wherein this manufacture does not merit the attention of the political observer.

Every where else, the country people employ, more or less, the leisure which their kind of life af­fords them to spin and weave linen. Most of the farmers and proprietors who enjoy a little ease, or who are not afraid of letting it appear, sow hemp or flax, and draw from their soil and the work of [Page 86] their hands the linen which covers their bodies and supplies their family.

The English have added other causes to those which produce low-priced workmanship: their asto­nishing industry, their observing genius, their ever calculating mind, have invented for the spinning, &c. of cotton, and for weaving, several machines which still surpass the cheapness to be expected from the leisure of the inhabitants of the country.

As these machines are insensibly introduced into countries, it may be expected that the low price of linen-drapery will be every where established.

But notwithstanding the multiplication of these machines, nations which groan under a bad govern­ment, or are grown rusty in old and wretched habits, will always depend, for that article of necessity, upon those which have established bounds to their govern­ment, but none for their industry, which must con­stantly increase.

It results from these facts, that the United States will always have, in proportion to the increase of their population and culture, less recourse to stran­gers for that principal kind of linen-drapery whose manufacture is so well associated with the labours of the field. ^*

Very fine linens must be excepted: they are des­tined for luxury, and the individuals employed in manufacturing them are condemned to vegetate mi­serably in cities, rolling perpetually in the same circle of mechanical labours. ^† It is the unhappy fate of [Page 87] all those who are born in Europe without property, and will not debase themselves by [...]omestic labour.

The United States, where laborious individuals may with so much facility become proprietors, are far from that degradation; and if they are wise, they will have, for a long time, the happiness not to see spun or woven among them, any of those delicate kinds of thread and fine linens, which, sought after and bought up by the opulent, are the real produc­tions of European misery.

The second species of linens contains what is more properly called linen-drapery; that is to say, cloth made of thread of different colours, whether flax, or cotton; or these two substances mixed with others.

The greater part of this drapery requires too com­plicated a process, too varied an apparatus, too con­tinued a labour, to be manufactured otherways than in those particular establishments, situated from ne­cessity in the neighbourhood of cities, and which have no affinity with a rural life.

The art of making well the tissue, of mixing the colours, of contrasting them, of imaginary agreeable [Page 88] designs, of preparing the linen when it is finished, &c. this art, extensive, varied and delicate, requires the greatest attention. The most important thing is to do a great deal in it at a little expence, and it is the point to which the English are arrived, with re­spect to that kind generally known under the name of printed callico.

This will be for a long time a considerable article of commerce, between Europe and the United States, which consumes a great deal of it; and it is an article wherein French industry, left to its natural force, and not being restrained by any obstacle, need not fear competition. ^* In this, as in most other articles, the nature of things is entirely in favour of France, and success depends wholly on the will of her government.

In the year 1785 the government of France in­vited, by an arret, foreign manufacturers of these linens to come and settle in France.

But this invitation is not made in terms sufficiently clear, or flattering, to induce strangers to come and settle amongst us; especially not such as have a little energy and elevation in their characters, and it is of these alone that we are in need.

Among different favours granted them, there is one which entitles them to the enjoyment of their state or profession, and of their usages; in that which shall not be contrary to the laws of the kindom, &c.

[Page 89]But what signifies all the vague expressions of en­joyment, of state and profession, liberty and usages? What state is here spoken of? Is it of the political, civil, religious, or domestic state? Englishmen, in­dependent Americans, have a political state, a poli­tical liberty, that is, a right to take part in the ad­ministration of public affairs: is this state under­stood? Is the liberty of having a temple for commu­nion, for marriage according to that communion, understood by the liberty of usages? Why are not these usages specified?

And above all, what signifies these words, in that which shall not be contrary to the laws of the kingdom. If they convey a clear meaning, do they not completely destroy the preceding favours granted? or, at least, do not they leave a great uncertainty upon that which is or is not granted?

Why is not a language clear and without evasion made use of, especially in treating with strangers? Instead of an equivocal jargon, dangerous in its na­ture, because it produces mistrust, and may give an opening for deceit, why not say to them in clear terms, "If you come within our states, accompanied by your wives and children,—if you bring your manufactures, if you establish yourselves among us, you shall enjoy all the rights of our subjects? These rights are, to possess property in the fullest security, and not to be deprived of it but by the laws, tri­bunals, &c. If you fix your abode among us, your children will, without obstacle, be your heirs: you shall also preserve your religious opinions. When there shall be a certain number of you, you shall have a temple wherein to worship, according to your own manner, the Everlasting Father; and you shall have ministers, and hold assemblies; shall intermarry according to your rules, &c. If France be not agreeable to you, nothing, absolutely nothing, shall hinder you from leaving it, and carrying with you [Page 90] your riches." It shall be told that all this was meant to be said by the arret: it was necessary then to ex­plain it clearly, and why were these obscure words added,— in that which shall not be contrary to the laws of the kingdom?

How should a German, an Italian, an English­man, who should be tempted to establish themselves in France, be acquainted with your ancient laws and ordinances? Will they turn over your innumerable folios? Certainly they will not, they will stay at home; you will therefore have failed in your inten­tions. On the other hand, do not they know that a century ago, and ever since that time, thousands of ordinances were, and have been made against the Calvinists, and that these ordinances are not yet repealed? Ought not they to be afraid that these would be brought forth against them if they gave the least offence? They will remain at home, and once more you have missed your aim.

It is the more necessary for monarchies not to disguise under a captious form the advantages by which they seek to entice strangers; as free states; such as Ireland and Independent America, do not subject emigrants to any capitulation or constraint: they offer them all the rights of citizens the moment they set their feet on free ground: and what rights! In Ireland that of voting at elections; in the United States, that of being elected themselves; and con­sequently the most seducing right, because it is the most proper one to maintain the dignity of a man who has dignity; the most proper to give it to him who has it not.

When a nation perceives the necessity of enticing strangers to settle in it, nothing ought to be spared, especially in states far advanced in civilization.

It is a means of regenerating morals, if it be pos­sible to regenerate them, and especially to encourage [Page 91] industry; for in order to exist in a strange land, and to gain in it consideration and confidence, emigrants are forced to have good morals, probity, and exacti­tude. Their example cannot but have a salutary in­fluence upon the nation which receives them into its bosom.

Otherwise, having opinions, habitudes, and know­ledge, different from those of that nation, they may help it to break its bad customs, to give it a greater extent in its views, more cosmopolitism, or of that character proper for approaching nations to each other, and for diminishing national antipathies.

When the advantages which a country acquires by strangers who fix themselves in it are considered, it is astonishing to see governments think so little about them, and frequently not to respect their rights: They ought, on the contrary, to protect a stranger so much the more as he seems less supported by the laws than a citizen; that he is unacquainted with them; that he may easily be the victim of artifice and chi­canery; that it frequently happens that he does not understand the language; finally, that being alone, he has neither family, friends, nor patrons.

In this situation, the stranger ought to be envi­roned by the safeguard of a particular administration, which should watch over his safety; but it is the reverse of this in many states. ^*

Thus, whilst we see in those states who under­stand their interests better, Frenchmen direct the [Page 92] greatest part of their manufactures; few strangers are seen to come and establish themselves amongst us.

I could quote, as a proof of what I advance, known facts, quite recent; but I will not write a book upon every article of exportation; I will con­fine myself to saying that great liberty, and few regu­lations, ^* are the two best means of improving the linen manufactures in all countries, as well as in France.

SECTION VI. Silks, Ribbons, Silk Stockings, Gold and Silver Lace, &c.

There are upwards of seventy thousand looms and frames employed in these articles, and one half of the silk made use of is produced in the kingdom.

The other states of Europe, except Spain and Italy, are obliged to procure from abroad the whole of the silk necessary for the manufactures which they have established, in imitation of those of France.

If there be added to the advantage which these circumstances give to the French, their singular ap­titude for the manufacture of every article of luxury; their incredible fecundity in varying these articles; the absolute and general empire allowed them over the taste and mode which preside in these manufac­tures; an empire so particular, as to be every where copied; no doubt will remain, that French silks, [Page 93] ribbons, silk stockings, and lace, will be preferred to all others in the United States. ^*

It is not to be feared that they will be manufac­tured there; from the cares which the insect that produces the silk requires, to the arrival of the stuff in the warehouse where it is to be sold, almost all is workmanship; and the workmanship of Europe must for a long time, if not for ever, be even cheaper than that of the United States.

The consumption ^† of these articles cannot be [Page 94] very considerable th [...]re, ^* if America takes advan­tage of that opening to which nature calls her. Rib­bons excepted, the rest are proper for great cities only; where vanity being incessantly excited, makes dress a desirable and almost necessary object. But these great cities will, without doubt, be very rare in the United States. It is still more certain that the consumption of silks does not, at present, form there a considerable article; that it will augment but very slowly, and in a manner almost insensible. The Americans ought undoubtedly to be congratulated upon it. Their manners will be good and simple as long as they do not contract a want of these articles; but if they do not want them for themselves, they will have occasion for them to form branches of their smuggling commerce with the Spaniards. Nature invites them to carry on this commerce in an advan­tageous manner, both by sea and land. ^†

[Page 95]It is known that wretched individuals, who vege­tate in South-America, masters and slaves, all sigh after nothing but luxury, pomp and dress. Elegant and shining stuffs of France; her silks and laces will therefore be sought after, demanded, and bought up with avidity.

However it may be with respect to this commerce, which exists but in futurity, and which must be pre­ceded by other circumstances, there is at present a certain consumption of silks, ribbons, &c. in the United States; and the French ought to be anxious to supply them.

I will observe upon this subject, that if the French government ordered that the regular packet-boats going from France and America should receive as much merchandize on board as their destination would permit, little ventures of our silks, stuffs, rib­bons, gauzes, stockings, &c. would be frequently sent out, and these articles would serve better than any other to establish uninterrupted connexions, and which by the insight they give, and the experiments which they afford an opportunity of making, con­duct nature herself to those great commercial inter­courses to which we ought to aspire.

The facilities which packet-boats offer for the sending out of merchandi [...]e of value and of little incumbrance ought not to be neglected, since, in this class of merchandize, we have things which have a decided preference. I will return to those packet-boats which it is important to keep up and to increase, and it is to be wished, that no monopoly of right or fact may take possession of them, in order to carry one branch of commerce in exclusion of others.

SECTION VII. Hats.

Although a [...]ne hat be called a beaver, it does not follow that Canada and the United Northern States are more favourable to the fabrication of hats than France. Hats, purely of beaver, do not wear well, and are inconvenient on account of their weight. The finest, handsomest, and best hats, contain but little of the fur of that animal, which we esteem at too high a price, when we think of the loss of Ca­nada. Wool, the furs of the hares and rabbits; the hair of goats, which, in fact, is wool, and camels hair, are more necessary for making of hats than the fur of beavers.

The few hats made of beaver in the United States will be sufficient for their consumption.—The Ame­ricans must, however, be incessantly told this great truth, that manufactures are not proper for them ex­cept in those articles which are immediately associated with agriculture, and which facilitate its operations. That of hats is not of this kind.

Europe will therefore furnish hats to the Ameri­cans. And of what great importance is this object, when the rapid increase of their population is con­sidered? It may be affirmed, that every nation ca­pable of sending them out merchandize, will send them hats; but those of France will have the prefe­rence. This manufacture had there its origin. The French alone have carried it elsewhere, like many other things; but it has never ceased to improve in France.

French hats are always the best fulled and dyed, and the most agreeable. When government shall have resolved to do for wools that which it has done for mulberry trees, the manufacture of hats will be so much the more advantageous, as we shall be less [Page 97] tributary to foreigners for the articles employed therein.

SECTION VIII. Leather. Shoes, Boots, Saddles, &c.

To what cause ought the great superiority of Eng­lish leather to be attributed over ours? Why is there in this leather-work of all kinds that neatness, that seducing appearance, which we have not yet ap­proached? It must be repeated, that in England men honour the profession of a tanner, and pride themselves upon it, whilst it is the contrary in France. An English tanner, shoemaker, or saddler, does not quit his trade when he is rich; but makes his riches serve, in proportion as they augment, to give lustre to [...]is profession, to multiply his workshops, to ex­tend his affairs, to become important even in the article which has furnished him the means of doing it. The leather which comes from the tanneries whose owner is in easy circumstances, is always well prepared, because he can advance sums of money, and give to hides the time necessary for their progress through his tan-yard. A poor tanner is always pressed by his wanting to take the leather out of the tan-pit, where it is necessary it should remain a long time to acquire a good quality. In general, it is im­possible with this penury, unknown to the English, that there should be time to manufacture or fabricate good merchandize. Those who employ the leather, acquire no reputation in their professions but in proportion to great provisions made before hand, which puts it in their power to furnish nothing but leather improved by being kept. It will be asked, how the wholesale dealers manage when they begin business? They find credit, if in their apprentice­ships, [Page 98] which precede their establishments, they have acquired a good reputation. ^*

This credit is then supported, not only by the certainty of success, but also by that of seeing them become a constant means of consumption.

Such is the art of the English to support and in­crease their commerce in every thing, and every where. If we could put it in practice, all our com­modities of leather would soon equal the perfection of theirs, since we do not otherwise want materials. Their being beforehand with us, ought not to dis­courage any body; but it is necessary to the success of this rivality, that government should deliver the tanners from the shackles with which they have fet­tered [Page 99] them, ^* and suppress or diminish the enormous duties with which the tanneries are loaded. ^†

SECTION IX. Glass Houses.

English glass ware is brought to great perfection, and England makes it a great object of exportation. [Page 101] America ought to prefer English glass to ours, be­cause we ourselves prefer it to that of our own ma­nufactory, common bottles excepted, which we make better, and which are of a finer glass than that of the English. But although this opinion may hurt the interest of those who have such establishments, it is necessary to say, that France, far from encou­raging them, ought to wish for their destruction. This kind of manufacture destroys combustibles, of which the rapid progress is alarming, when it is com­pared to the slowness with which they are produced.

The English, seated upon their coal mines, are little uneasy about the voracity of furnaces wherein glass is melted; but although it be said that we have the same advantage, it is still permitted to doubt of it. And moreover it is not sufficient to have immense coal mines under foot, it is necessary to be able to work them at a little expence. Glass manufactories, placed within the reach of mines, should not be too far distant from the sea, for the transports becoming expensive, would give to the English an advantage over us, who, from every part of their island, can easily get to the sea. Finally, our own consumption of glass-ware, much greater than that of the English, may already be too considerable, if it be compared with the means to which the ever growing scarcity of combustibles reduces us. ^*

[Page 102]To be fully convinced that we ought not to put glass-ware into the list of articles of exportation to America, it is only necessary to reflect upon the situa­tion of the United States. They have immense forests to clear, consequently it is highly proper that they should establish glass manufactories, and increase them as much as possible. The labour employed to destroy the woods for the clearing of lands, at the same time that it disposes the land to culture, will serve for the production of a very extensive object of manufacture, therefore the utility of this destruc­tion is double to the Americans. ^* It cannot be doubted, that this consideration will strike them, that they will one day conceive the project of furnishing Europe with glass-ware, of adding this article to those which they can exchange for such European pro­ductions as are improper for little states to cultivate or manufacture within themselves. It can be no more doubted, that France will gain greatly by seeing her glass manufactories destroyed by those of the A­mericans, who will sell us glass-ware in exchange for our wines, cloths, printed linens, silks, &c. In the mean time, it would undoubtedly be a salutary measure, to open the kingdom to the importation of foreign glass.

SECTION X. Iron and Steel.

The consumption of these two articles is immense in the United States; the single article of nails amounts to considerable sums. This will not appear extraordinary, when it is remembered, that all the houses, all the inclosures of the Ameicans, are of wood, that they build a great number of ships, which require frequent reparations.

It is the same with respect to saws, shovels, hoes, and in general all the instruments necessary to agri­culture and navigation.

The Americans are singularly curious in the choice of the first necessity. They have therein the gene­ral taste of the English; they will have that only which is good. On comparing those which they make themselves with the tools made in France, it must be acknowledged that we are far from that per­fection at which they are arrived in them: this per­fection is owing to the ease of the labourer, and to the consideration attached to agriculture. Imper­fection is a necessary consequence of restraint and dishonour.

The Americans have attempted to make iron and steel. Many manufactories have been set up at New-York, in New-Jersey, and in Pennsylvania: it is true that these manufactures are few in number, but they will necessarily increase for the reasons which I shall hereafter give.

England heretofore exported a considerable quan­tity of iron and steel: ^* her mines not having yet fur­nished [Page 104] iron proper for certain instruments▪ she had recourse to those of Russia, and especially to those of Sweden, whose iron and steel are most esteemed. She did no more with regard to America than stand be­tween her and others, and this circuit augmented the expences of the colonist, without procuring him any benefit. This will exist no longer, because the A­mericans are about to trade directly with the Swedes and Russians.

Lord Sheffield calculates, that one year with ano­ther England imported 50,000 tons of foreign iron, of which from 15 to 20,000 was afterwards exported to the colonies either in its natural state or worked up.

The profit to the mother country was, according to his Lordship, 12,000,000 lives, or thereabouts.

During the war, and since the peace, some exports of this kind have been made from France to the United States; but they did not succeed. Accustom­ed, according to the principles of monopolizers, who have hitherto directed our foreign commerce, to fur­nish our colonies with brittle utensils, and otherwise very imperfect, our merchants were willing to treat the independent Americans like their slaves in their islands; ^* and the Americans refused our merchan­dise. [Page 105] They said, that we did not even know how to make nails; and, in strict truth, they were right in their assertion. They preferred the iron and steel of England, although the duties on exportation in­creased their dearness.

It is probable enough that the English legislature will suppress them according to the advice of Lord Sheffield; and this, joined to the benefit of the oeco­nomy procured by the discovery of Lord Dundonald, and of Messrs. Watts and Boulton, for heating fur­naces at half the common expence, will undoubtedly produce a reduction in the price of iron.

This diminution is one of the causes which must necessarily hinder us from attempting a rivality in this particular with the English; but there is another, which is still more decisive.

In fact, the observations made heretofore upon the necessity of destroying our glass manufactories, ap­ply naturally to that considerable branch [...]f iron-work, of which the workmanship is the least ex­pence, and which requires a great quantity of com­bustible materials. The United States are obliged to destroy their immense forests: France ought, on the contrary, to think of re-producing hers: there­fore, the founderies and forges will offer in America the advantage of turning to profit woods, which, without these manufactures, it would be equally ne­cessary to burn: whilst in France, wood and char­coal becoming every day more scarce and dear, ren­ders these establishments more expensive. Now, as the abundance in which iron mines are every where [Page 106] found, ^* makes the price of iron depend almost en­tirely on that of combustibles necessary to melt it, it is evident that the United States have over us, and even over the English, a considerable advantage.

Moreover, forges are a part of the equipage neces­sary to country labour; for, if it were necessary to seek at a distance the utensils of agriculture▪ the pro­gress of clearing of lands would soon be stopped— the productions would not pay the expences. These would still be increased by the repeated necessity of substituting new utensils to those which there would be no means of repairing. As soon as the people have mines of iron—as soon as they are led by the nature of things, and by necessity, to establish foun­deries and forges, it is not a long time before they renounce all foreign aid in the articles of iron; ^† therefore, the Americans are, as I have observed▪ already provided with these establishments: and as Engli [...] industry has established and directed them, they are all at that degree of perfection which we have not yet attained.

Let it be remarked, that these manufactures being joined to a life of agriculture, and carried on in the midst of it for its uses, can have none of the perni­cious influences which ought to be feared in those complicated manufactures which are obliged to be concentrated in the inclosures of cities, whose de­structive [Page 107] employ exhausts the natural strength of men, by corrupting their morals.

Therefore, to resume this article—far from en­couraging the exportation of iron manufactured in France, we ought, for our own interest, to encou­rage the importation of foreign iron, because manu­factures of this kind take away combustibles from things more pressingly wanted, and from less destruc­tive manufactures, where workmanship produces a greater profit.

This, however, is not the case with every article of curiosity of iron, steel, or copper work, wherein the workmanship exceeds the other expences. They belong to that weak organization which the Ameri­cans ought not to envy. But it must not be dissimu­lated, that a competition with the English will, on this head, be difficult to maintain: their great ability and address in the distribution of work and different processes, the invention of which has not been con­strained by any error ^* or false view of the admini­stration [Page 108] of England, give them over us a consider­able advantage; yet it is not impossible [...] us to ba­lance it, for this distribution of work and proceed­ings are neither secrets nor superior to French indus­try. Let government adopt and follow the trivial maxim—'Who will have the end will find the means.' Let it in consequence not interdict any of the means, and this industry will not have to envy the success of our rivals.

SECTION XI. Jewellery, Gold and Silversmiths' Articles, Clock-work, &c.

If the inhabitants of the United States concentrate their labours and pleasure in a life of husbandry; if they continue to seek happiness, not in pomp, but in nature herself, and in a simplicity of manners; in that simplicity which naturally produces ease, and the population and prosperity of states; they will not seek after, but disdain plate and jewels, to which we attach so great a price. They will reserve precious metals for mints and commerce. It is not, however, to be presumed, that this order of things should long subsist in great cities, and especially in frequented ports; European taste and wants prevail in America, ^* and F [...]ench industry ought to be anxious to supply their consumption, seeing that the French can un­dersell the English in these articles.

But it is probable that the plated ware (copper plated with silver) invented in England will take place in the United States of that of silver plate, as painted paper has replaced there much more expen­sive hanging; this new sort of plate has for use all the advantages of the other, and costs a great deal less.

How comes it that the English are already so ad­vanced in this branch of industry, whilst there exists in France but one or two manufactures where copper is plated on one side only, and silvered over on the other? How have the English already carried this in­vention to so high a degree of perfection? How have they made of it a matter of extensive commerce, [Page 110] whilst we are reduced to the two manufactures wherein no progress is seen, and where the inferiority of the workmanship disgusts those who would other­wise find it to their advantage to make use of this kind of plate?

These manufactures have an exclusive privilege; there is the word—Government fearing lest false mo­ney might be made in them, has forbidden even the plating on both sides.

Reasoning would here be superfluous: it is suf­ficient to open the eyes to see which of the two ad­ministrations has best served its country; whether it be that of England, by not cramping industry, and in not giving way to fears, whose illusion is shewn by the most trifling observation, or ours, in follow­ing a contrary plan. Again, was it apprehended, that counterfeit crowns would be made by millions▪ as a sacrifice is made to this fear of an industry which would certainly produce many millions of them?

Thus, when we consider all these articles, wherein trifling considerations shall be our industry, and con­demn to mediocrity our means of prosperity; when we thence turn our attention towards the different spirit which governs England, it is astonishing that industry still exists in France, and that the nation does not fall into sloth, and remain there. Let us give thanks unto nature, who has richly gifted us, and her guardian strength has hitherto demonstrated itself superior to the malignant influence of the false science of our administrators. ^*

[Page 111]Shall we remain behind the English and Swiss in clock-work? The Americans must have watches; this admirable invention carries with it such a degree of utility for even the poor classes of society, that it ought not to be considered as a simple acquisition of luxury, especially in the United States, where the distance of habitations one from another makes the necessity of it most fully perceived.

But watches must be made good and at a cheap rate; these two conditions will assure them a prodigious sale wherever civilization exists; time is there a pre­cious property, and its price renders the instrument necessary which divides it: they will be made good and at a cheap rate, when able artists are consulted. ^*

This species of manufacture will always belong to great cities, where the excess of population keeps workmanship at a low price, where the difficulty of subsisting enslaves that crowd of weak and indolent beings which are under the law of the rich under­taker. [Page 112] The United States are far from suffering this difficulty of subsistence, this excess of population; they are therefore far from these manufactures.

SECTION XII. Different Sorts of Paper, stained Paper, &c.

This useful production from old rags, thrown off by people at ease, and gathered with care by the in­digent, is daily improved in France. ^* The English themselves buy our paper for printing, and our writ­ing [Page 113] paper will not be long unequal to theirs, if it does not surpass it. ^*

But if there be an object of commerce for which Europeans need not fear a reciprocal competition; if there be an article which offers to all European manufactures a certain and lucrative employ, it is that of paper: the consumption will always be equal at least to the production, and its numerous uses in­sure a still greater consumption, in proportion as po­pulation, commerce, and knowledge, sha [...]l increase.

Every nation ought therefore to observe without jealousy, that each country strives to have within itself manufactures of this kind.

The Americans cannot however enjoy this ad­vantage for a long time to come: besides the dearness of workmanship, their population cannot furnish them old rags in quantities sufficient to establish paper mills whose productions would be equal to the consumption of the inhabitants.

Will their population ever furnish them with this sufficiency? This is a question difficult to resolve. In fact, in proportion to the knowledge which na­tions may acquire, and to the liberty of the press, which may be enjoyed in America, a prodigious quantity of paper must be consumed there; but can the population of this country produce rags in the same proportion? It cannot reasonably be hoped that it will. It is therefore probable that the Ame­rican markets will not for a long time be provided with any other than European paper, and that this will find a place there. ^†

[Page 114]But since the use of paper is so advantageous to men, since it is so varied, it behoves every nation to look upon foreign consumption as a supplement only, as an open port in the case of a suspension of interior commerce. It behoves every nation to keep paper at a moderate price within itself, and to attain this end, means must be thought of to increase ma­terials which serve to compose this article, and to pursue the happy attempts already made to do it. ^* These researches are so much the more essential, so much the more urgent, as the happy invention of coloured paper for hanging is of a nature always to cause a greater consumption of paper; and this man­ner of hanging with paper will subsist for a long [Page 115] time, because it gives a neat and agreeable appear­ance to apartments.

No other is known in the United States; it is there universal; almost all the houses are neat and decent.

SECTION XIII. Printing.

The liberty of the press being a fundamental principle of the American constitution, there can be no doubt that printing will increase there. But it must be observed, that extensive printing requires workmen at a little expence; that is to say, men without property, talents, or conduct; whom great cities produce and employ in work which requires neither intelligence nor emulation; and it has already been observed, that the United States, unless the rage of great cities takes possession of them, will contain but few of these wretched beings.

Printing will not, therefore, it may be presumed, be extended among the free Americans, at least be­yond that which is necessary for the public prints. ^* Their constant and considerable sale, permitting a greater expence in workmanship, consequently draws about the press many individuals, because they have, in a good salary, a view of the means of becoming proprietors or traders. ^†

[Page 116]The furnishing of books of science and amuse­ment must therefore make a considerable object of importation into the United States. It is for France to appropriate to herself this commerce, and to en­courage the impression of English books. Our workmanship being cheaper than that of England, and the English making use of our paper, our bind­ing being less expensive, why should not all the books in which the Americans stand in need of be printed in France?

It will be said that we do not enjoy the liberty of the press,—be it so:—But it is only with respect to our books; ^* for undoubtedly the administration does not pretend to extend its coercive principles to books written in foreign languages; it would not attain its end, seeing that it does not do it with re­spect to French books; ^† and by this impolitical ri­gour [Page 117] France would be deprived of a lucrative article of commerce, certain, and of continual increase.

The Dutch, so active and vigilant in seizing the rising branches of commerce, have for a long time speculated on books in the United States: many bi­bles and books of prayer, for the use of the Ame­ricans, are printed in Holland. Lord Sheffield is obliged to acknowledge, that printing in Holland is by far more cheap than that of England, and of course must have the preference. They will some day extend this commerce to classical books. ^*

SECTION XIV. Salt.

This article, so necessary to the Americans, and so abundant in France, must not be forgotten in the enu­meration of commodities to be imported into Ame­rica. The Americans will for a long time be obliged to get it from Europe; not that they have no salt marshes upon the coasts, and salt pits in the interior parts of the country; but these marshes, these salt pits, must have hands to work them; and hands are better employed in the United States. ^† The salt ex­ported [Page 118] from Europe will for this reason be a long time cheaper than that of America:—moreover, its freight will cost but little, as vessels from Europe may be ballasted with it. The Americans ought to give the preference to French salt; it is less sharp, less corrosive, and possesses a better quality for salting, than any other European salt.

The three millions of inhabitants which the United States contain at present, are supposed to consume sixty million pound weight of salt, without reckon­ing that which is given to cattle, and that employed in salting provisions; of which great quantity is consumed in the United States, and with which they will carry on a commerce more and more con­siderable: I will not at present go into a calculation of the immense riches which the furnishing of made salt to foreign population, continually increasing, would produce to France. I ought to guard against exaggerations: but it may not be improper to ob­serve, that a considerable part of the States of the North will never make any salt. It is therefore pos­sible that French salt may have a preference among them, as being cheaper and more within their reach: the population of these states will be more rapid than that of the others, and the commerce more varied and extensive.

SECTION XV. General Considerations on the Catalogue of French Impor­tations into the United States.

I will extend no further the list of articles which French commerce may furnish to the United States: there are many others which I omit, because the bounds of my work will not permit me to examine any more than the principal ones.

If faith be given to the calculations of Lord Shef­field, and of other political writers, it appears that [Page 119] the amount of the expectations of Great-Britain into free America was, upon an average, calculated upon three years, taken before 1773, near three millions sterling, upwards of seventy-two millions of livres tournois. How much will it increase in following the progression of population, and clearing of lands? It is especially for this future state of things that France ought to prepare her means.

Let it be also observed, that this commerce em­ployed seven or eight hundred vessels, and about ten thousand sailors.

Ought France to let slip so important a commerce, and a means so natural of supporting her marine? For without commerce there can be no marine. Has not she, in the richness of her soil, in a variety of her manufactures, in the low price of her workman­ship, in the industry and taste of her inhabitants, in her population, and in the situation of her ports, an infinity of means sufficient to establish in America a solid and extensive commerce? It must be continual­ly repeated, that if it be wished that peace should reign upon the earth, the words preference and compe­tition, which are frequently signals of discord, must be used with circumspection. Why should there be any jealousy with respect to this commerce? In the course of time independent America will offer a field wide enough for all the European manufactures.