Mechanick exercises: or the doctrine of handy-works. Applied to the arts of smithing joinery carpentry turning bricklayery. To which is added Mechanick dyalling: ... The third edition. By Joseph Moxon, ...
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Mechanick Exercises: OR THE DOCTRINE OF HANDY-WORKS.
Applied to the Arts of
Smithing
Ioinery
Carpentry
Turning
Bricklayery.
To which is added
Mechanick Dyalling: Shewing how to draw a true Sun-Dyal on any given Plane, however Scituated; only with the help of a straight
Ruler and a pair of
Compasses, and without any
Arithmetical Calculation.
The Third Edition.
By
JOSEPH MOXON, Fellow of the Royal Society, and Hydrographer to the late King
Charles.
LONDON: Printed for
Dan. Midwinter and
Tho. Leigh, at the
Rose and Crown in St.
Paul's-
Church-Yard. 1703.
I See no more Reason, why the Sordidness of some Workmen, should be the cause of contempt upon
Manual Operations, than that the excellent Invention of a
Mill should be dispis'd, because a blind Horse draws in it. And tho' the
Mechanicks be, by some, accounted Ignoble and Scandalous? yet it is very well known, that many Gentlemen in this Nation, of good Rank and high Quality, are conversant in
Handy-Works: And other Nations exceed us in numbers of such. How pleasant and healthey this their Diversion is, their Minds and Bodies find; and how Harmless and Honest, all sober men may judge?
That
Geometry, Astronomy, Perspective, Musick, Navigation, Architecture, &c. are excellent Sciences, all that know but their very Names will confess: Yet to what purpose would
Geometry serve, were it not to contrive Rules for
Handy-Works? Or how could
Astronomy be known to any perfection▪ but by Instruments made by Hand?
[Page] What
Perspective should we have to delight our Sight? What
Musick to ravish our Ears? What
Navigation to Guard and Enrich our Country? Or what
Architecture to defend us from the Inconveniencies of different Weather, without
Manual Operations? Or how waste and useless would many of the Productions of this and other Counties be, were it not for
Manufactures.
To dive into the Original of the
Mechanicks is impossible, therefore I shall not offer at it; only I shall say, it is Rational to think, that the
Mechanicks began with
Man, he being the only Creature that Nature has imposed most Necessity upon to use it, endow'd with greatest Reason to contrive it, and adapted with properest Members (as Instruments) to perform it.
Nor is it easie to find by any Authority, what part of the
Mechanicks was first Practised by
Man; therefore I shall wave that too, and only consider, that if we our selves were the first Men, what Branch of the
Mechanicks we should first Need, and have recourse to.
I have considered, and Answer, That without the Invention of
Smithing primarily, most other
Mechanick Invention
[Page] would be at a stand: The Instruments, or Tools, that are used in them, being either made of Iron, or some other matter, form'd by the help of Iron. But pray take Notice, that by Iron, I also mean Steel, it being originally Iron.
Nor would I have you understand, that when I name the
Mechanicks, I mean that rough and Barbarous sort of working which is used by the Natives of
America, and some other such Places; for, though they did indeed make Houses, Canoes, Earthen Pots, Bows, Arrows,
&c. without the help of Iron, because they had then none amongst them: Yet since Iron is now known to them, they leave of their old way of working without it, and betake themselves to the use of it. Nor are, at this day, (though now they have in part the use of Iron) their
Machines made by good and ready Rules of
Art; for they know neither of
Rule, Square, or
Compass; and what they do, is done by Tedious Working, and he that has the best Eye at Guessing, works best upon the
Straight, Square or
Circle, &c.
The Lord
Bacon, in his
Natural History, reckons that
Philosophy would be
[Page] improv'd, by having the Secrets of all Trades lye open; not only because much
Experimental Philosophy, is Coucht amongst them; but also that the
Trades themselves might, by a
Philosopher, be improv'd. Besides, I find, that one
Trade may borrow many Eminent Helps in
Work of another
Trade.
Hitherto I cannot learn that any hath undertaken this Task, though I could have wisht it had been performed by an abler hand then mine; yet, since it is not, I have vetured upon it.
I thought to have given these
Exercises, the Title of
The Doctrine of Handy-Crafts; but when I better considered the true meaning of the Word
Handy-Crafts, I found the
Doctrine would not bear it; because
Hand-Craft signifies
Cunning, or
Sleight, or
Craft of the Hand, which cannot be taught by Words, but is only gained by
Practise and
Exercise; therefore I shall not undertake, that with the bare reading of these
Exercises, any shall be able to perform these
Handy-Works; but I may safely tell you, that these are the
Rules that every one that will endeavour to perform
[Page] them must follow; and that by the true observing them, he may, according to his stock of Ingenuity and Diligence, sooner or later, inure his hand to the
Cunning or
Craft of working like a
Handy-Craft, and consequently be able to perform them in time.
For the Reason aforesaid I intend to begin with
Smithing, which comprehends not only the
Black-Smith's Trade, but takes in all
Trades which use either
Forge or
File, from the
Anchor-Smith, to the
Watch-Maker; they all working by the same
Rules, tho' not with equal exactness, and all using the same
Tools, tho' of several Sizes from those the common
Black-Smith uses, and that according to the various purposes they are applied to: And in order to it, I shall first shew you how to set up a
Forge, and what
Tools you must use in the
Black-Smith's work; then the
Rules, and several
Circumstances of
Forging, till your Work come to the
File: Then of the several Sorts of Iron that are commonly used; and what sort is fittest for each purpose. Afterwards of
Filing in general, and the
Rules to be observed in it, in the making of
[Page]Jacks, Hinges, Screws, Clocks, Watches, &c. In which Examples, you will find all other Sorts of
Forging or
Filing work whatsoever comprehended. And lastly, as a close to
Smithing, I shall Exercise upon
Steel, and its several Sorts, and how to Order and Temper it for its several Uses; and what Sort is fittest for each particular purpose; as which is fittest for
Edge-Tools, which for
Springs, which for
Punches, &c.
Some perhaps would have thought it more Proper, to have introduced these
Exercises with a more Curious, and less Vulgar Art, than that of
Smithing; but I am not of their Opinion; for
Smithing is in all parts, as curious a
Handy-Craft, as any is: Besides, it is a great Introduction to most other
Handy-Works, as
Joynery, Turning, &c. they (with the
Smith) working upon the
Straight, Square, or
Circle, though with different
Tools, upon different
Matter; and they all having dependance upon the
Smith's Trade, and not the
Smith upon them.
BOOKS Printed for
D. Midwinter [...]T. Leigh, at the
Rose and Crown in St. Paul's Church-yard.
SHort but yet Plain Elements of Geometry, and Plain Trigonometry: Shewing how by a Breif and easie Method, most of what is necessary and useful in Euclide, Archimides, Apollonius, and other Excellent Geometricians, both Ancient and Modern, may be understood Written in French by F. Ignat. Gaston, Pardies. The Second Edition: In which are many new Propositions, Additions, and useful Improvements; the Problems being now placed everywhere in their proper Order, and the whole accomodated to the Capacities of young Beginners.
A New Short Treatise of Algebra; with the Geometrical Construction of Equations, as far as the Fourth Power or Dimension. Together with a Specimen of the Nature and Algorithm of Fluxions.
Both by John Harris, M. A. and F. R. S.
Mathesis Enucleata: Or, The Elements of the Mathematicks, By J. Christ. Sturmius, Professeor of Philosophy and Mathematicks in the University of Altorf. Made English.
A Mathematical Dictionary: Or, A Compendious Explication of all Mathematical Terms, Abridg'd from Monsieur Ozanam, and Others. With a Translation of his Preface, and an Addition of several easie and useful Abstracts; as Plain Trigonometry, Mechanicks, the first Properties of the Three Conic
[...] Sections, &c. To which is added an Appendix, containing the Quantities of all sorts of Weights and Measures, and the Explanation of the Characters used in Algebra. Also the Definition and Use of the Principal Mathematical Instruments, and the Instruments themselves curiously engraven on Copper.
Both by J. Raphson, F. R. S.
A New and Most Accurate Theory of the Moon's Motion; whereby all her Irregularities may be solved, and her Place truly calculated to Two Minutes. Written by that Incomparable Mathematician Mr. Isaac Newton, and published in Latin by Mr. David Gregory in his Excellent Astronomy.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works. Of
SMITHING in General.
Definition.
SMITHING is an Art-Manual, by which an irregular Lump (or several Lumps) of Iron, is wrought into an intended Shape.
This Definition, needs no Explanation; therefore I shall proceed to give you an Account of the Tools a Smith uses; not but that (they being so common) I suppose you do already know them; but partly because they may require some precaution in setting them up fittest to your use; and partly because it behoves you to know the Names, Smiths call the several parts of them by; that when I name them in Smith's Language (as I shall oft have occasion to do in these
Exercises) you may the easier understand them, as you read them.
Of setting up a Smith's
Forge.
THE
Hearth, or Fire-place of the
Forge marked A. (in Plate 1.) is to be built up from your floor with Brick about two foot and an half, or sometimes two foot nine Inches high, according to the purpose you design your
Forge for; for if your
Forge be intended for heavy work, your
Hearth must lie lower than it need be for light
[Page 2] work, for easiness of management, and so broad as you think convenient: It may be built with hollow Arches underneath, to set several things out of the way. The Back of the
Forge is built upright to the top of the Ceiling, and inclosed over the Fire-place with a
Hovel, which ends in a
Chimney to carry away the Smoak, as B. In the back of the
Forge against the Fire-place, is fixed a thick Iron Plate, and a taper Pipe in it about five Inches long, called a
Tewel, or (as some call it) a
Tewel-Iron marked *, which Pipe comes through the Back of the
Forge, as at C. Into this taper Pipe or
Tewel is placed the Nose, or Pipe of the
Bellows. The Office of this
Tewel, is only to preserve the Pipe of the Bellows, and the back of the
Forge about the Fire-place from burning. Right against the Back is placed at about twenty Inches, or two foot distance, the
Trough, and reaches commonly through the whole breadth of the
Forge, and is as broad and deep as you think good, as at D. The
Bellows is placed behind the Back of the
Forge, and hath as aforesaid, its Pipe fitted into the Pipe of the
Tewel, and hath one of its Boards fixed so that it move not upwards or downwards. At the Ear of the upper Bellows board is fastened a
Rope, or sometimes a
Thong of Leather, or an Iron
Chain or
Rod, as E; which reaches up to the
Rocker, and is fastened there to the farther end of the Handle, as at F. This
Handle is fastened a cross a
Rock-staff, which moves between two Cheeks upon the
Center-pins, in two Sockets, as at G. So that by drawing down this Handle, the moving Board of the
Bellows rises, and by a considerable weight set on the top of its upper Board sinks down again, and by this Agitation performs the Office of a pair of
Bellows.
THE shape of a Black Smith's
Anvil I have inserted in this Figure, though it is sometimes made with a
Pike, or
Bickern, or
Beak-iron, at one end of it, whose use I shall shew you when I come to round hollow work. Its
Face must be very flat and smooth, without Flaws, and so hard that
a File will not touch it (as Smiths say, when a File will not cut, or race it.) The upper Plain A. is called the
Face; it is commonly set upon a wooden
Block, that it may stand very steady and solid, and about two foot high from the floor, or sometimes higher, according to the stature of the Person that is to work at it.
Of the
Tongs.
THere are two sorts of
Tongs used by Smiths; the one the
Straight-nosed Tongs, used when the work is short, and somewhat flat, and generally for all Plate Iron. The other
Crooked-nos'd Tongs, to be used for the forging small Bars, or such thicker work, as will be held within the Returns of their
Chaps. The
Chaps are placed near the Joint, because, that considering the length of the
Handles, they hold the Iron faster than they would do, were they placed farther from the Joint, as in the Fig. 3.4. A the
Chaps, B the
Joint, CC the
Handles.
Of the
Hammer, and the
Sledge.
THere are several sorts of
Hammers used by Black-Smiths; as first the
Hand-hammer, which is sometimes bigger, or less, according to the Strength of the Work-man; but it is a
Hammer of such weight, that it may be weilded, or governed, with one hand at the
Anvil. Secondly, the
Up-hand Sledge, used by under-Workmen, when the Work is not of the largest, yet requires
[Page 4] help to batter, or
draw it out; they use it with both their hands before them, and seldom lift their
Hammer higher than their head. Thirdly, the
About Sledge is the biggest
Hammer of all, and is also used by under-Workmen, for the battering, or
drawing out of the largest Work; and then they hold the farther end of the
Handle in both their Hands, and swinging the
Sledge above their Heads, they at Arms end let fall as heavy a Blow as they can upon the Work. There is also another
Hammer used by them, which they call a
Rivetting-hammer. This is the smallest
Hammer of all, and very rarely used at the
Forge, unless your Work prove very small; but upon cold Iron it is used for rivetting, or setting straight, or crooking small work. In Fig. 5. A the
Face, B the
Pen, C the
Eye, D the
Handle.
Of the
Vice.
THE
Vice must be set up very firmly that it shake not, and stand upright with its
Chaps, parallel or range with your
Work-bench; because square filing, is a great piece of good Workmanship in a Smith; and should the Vice not stand upright, and range with the Work-bench, the
Chaps pinching upon two square sides, would make the top side of your work either lean towards you, or from you; and consequently you filing (as a good Workman ought to do) upon the flat, or Horizontal Plain of your work, would take off more of that Angle, or Edge, which rises higher than the Plain, and less off that Edge, that lies lower than the Plain; so that one Angle being higher, or lower, than the other, your work instead of being filed
Square, would be filed
Square-wise, when you shall have filed all its flat sides, and that more or less, according to the leaning of the
Chaps of your
Vice. AA the
Face, hath its
[Page 5] two ends in a straight Line with the middle of its
Face, or
Plain. B the
Chaps must be cut with a Bastard Cut▪ and very well tempered; C the
Screw Pin, cut with a square strong Worm. D the
Nut, or
Screw Box, hath also a square
Worm, and is brazed into the round
Box. E the
Spring must be made of good Steel, and very well temper'd: Where note that the wider the two ends of the
Spring stand asunder, the wider it throws the
Chaps of the
Vice open. F the
Foot must be straight, and therefore will be the stronger to bear good heavy blows upon the work screwed in the
Chaps of the
Vice, that it neither bow, or tremble.
Of the
Hand-Vice.
OF the
Hand-Vice are two Sorts, one is called the
Broad Chapt Hand-Vice, the other the
Square Nos'd Hand-Vice. The Office of the
Hand-Vice, is to hold small work in, that may require often turning about; it is held in the left hand, and each part of your work turned upwards successively, that you have occasion to file with your right. The
Square-nos'd Hand-Vice is seldom used, but for filing small Globulous Work, as the Heads of Pins that round off towards the Edges,
&c. And that because the
Chaps do not stand shouldering in the way, but that the flat of the
File may the better come at the Edges. Their
Chaps must be cut as the
Vice aforesaid, and well tempered.
Of the
Plyers.
PLyers are of two Sorts,
Flat Nos'd, and
Round Nos'd. Their Office is to hold, and fasten upon all small work, and to fit it in its place. The
Round Nos'd Plyers are used for turning, or bowing Wyer, or small Plate, into a circular Form. The
Chaps of the
Fla
[...] N
[...]s'd Plyes, must
[Page 6] also be cut and temper'd, as the
Chaps of the
Vice. A the
Nose, B the
Chaps, C the
Joint, DD the
Handles.
Of the
Drill, and
Drill-Bow.
DRills are used for the making such Holes as
Punches will not conveniently serve for; as a piece of work that hath already its Shape, and must have an hole, or more, made in it. Here the force of a
Punch, will set your work out of order and shape, because it will both batter the Surface of the Iron, and stretch its Sides out: The shank of a Key also, or some such long Hole, the
Punch cannot strike, because the Shank is not forged with substance sufficient; but the
Drill, tho' your work be filed and polish'd, never batters or stretches it, but cuts a true round Hole, just in the point you first place it. You must have several Sizes of
Drills, according as your work may require. The shape in Fig. 8. is enough to shew the Fashion of it; but it must be made of good Steel, and well temper'd. A the
Point, AB the
Shank, C the
Drill-barrel: Where note, that the bigger the
Drill-barrel is, the easier it runs about, but less swift.
And as you must be provided with several
Drills, so you may sometimes require more than one
Drill-bow, or at least, several
Drill-strings; the strongest Strings for the largest
Drills, and the smallest
Strings for the smallest
Drills: But you must remember, that whether you use a small or strong
String, you keep your
Drill-Bow straining your String pretty stiff, or else your String will not carry your Barrel briskly about. But your String and Bow, must both be accommodated to the Size of your
Drill; and if both, or either, be too strong, they will break, or bend your
Drill; or if too weak, they will not carry about the Barrel, as aforesaid.
[Page 7]The
Drill-Plate, or
Breast-Plate, is only a piece of flat Iron, fixt upon a flat Board, which Iron hath an hole punched a little way into it, to set the blunt end of the Shank of the
Drill in, when you drill a hole: Workmen instead of it, many times use the
Hammer, into which they prick a hole a little way on the side of it, and so set the
Hammer against their Breast.
Of the
Screw-Plate, and its
Taps.
THE
Screw-Plate is a Plate of Steel well temper'd, with several holes in it, each less than other, and in those
Holes are
Threds grooved inwards; into which
Grooves, fit the respective
Taps that belong to them. The
Taps that belong to them, are commonly made tapering towards the Point, as Fig. 7. shews. But these tapering
Taps, will not serve for some sorts of works, as I shall shew in its proper place.
These are the most Essential Tools used in the Black-Smith's Trade; but some accidental work, may require some accidental Tools, which, as they may fall in, I shall give you an account of in convenient place.
Of
Forging in general.
I Think it needless to tell you how to make your Fire, or blow it, because they are both but Labourers work; nor how little, or big, it need to be, for your own reason will, by the Size of your work, teach you that; only let me tell you the Phrase Smiths use for [make the Fire] is,
Blow up the Fire, or sometimes,
Blow up the Coals.
When it is burning with the Iron in it, you must, with the
Slice, clap the Coals upon the out-side close together, to keep the heat in the body of the Fire; and as oft as you find the Fire begin to break out, clap them close again, and
[Page 8] with the
Washer dipt in Water, wet the out-side of the Fire to damp the out-side, as well to save Coals, as to strike the force of the Fire into the in-side, that your work may heat the sooner. But you ought oft to draw your work a little way out of the Fire, to see how it
takes its Heat, and quickly thrust it in again, if it be not hot enough: For each purpose your work is designed to, ought to have a proper
Heat suitable to that purpose, as I shall shew you in the several
Heats of Iron: For if it be too cold, it will not
feel the weight of the Hammer (as Smiths say, when it will not batter under the
Hammer) and if it be too hot, it will
Red-sear, that is, break, or crack under the
Hammer, while it is working between hot and cold.
Of the several
Heats Smiths take of their Iron.
THere are several degrees of
Heats Smiths take of their Iron, each according to the purpose of their work. As first, a
Blood-red Heat. Secondly, a
White Flame Heat. Thirdly, a
Sparkling, or
Welding Heat.
The
Blood-red Heat is used when Iron hath already its form and size, as sometimes square Bars, and Iron Plates,
&c. have, but may want a little Hammering to smooth it. Use then the Face of your
Hand-hammer, and with light flat Blows, hammer down the irregular Risings into the Body of your Iron, till it be smooth enough for the File. And note▪ that it behoves a good Workman, to hammer his Work as true as he can; for one quarter of an hour spent at the
Forge, may save him an hours work at the
Vice.
The
Flame, or
White Heat, is used when your Iron hath not its Form or Size, but must be forged into both; and then you must take a piece of Iron thick enough, and with the
Pen of your
[Page 9]Hammer, (or sometimes, according to the size of your work, use two or three pair of hands with
Sledges to) batter it out; or, as Workmen call it, to
draw it out, till it comes to its breadth, and pretty near its shape; and so by several
Heats, if your work require them, frame it into Form and Size; then with the Face of your
Hand-hammer, smooth your work from the Dents the
Pen made, as you did with a
Blood-red Heat.
A
Sparkling, or
Welding-heat, is only used when you
double up your Iron (as Smiths call it) to make it thick enough for your purpose, and so
weld, or work in the
doubling into one another, and make it become one entire lump; or it is used when you join several Bars of Iron together to make them thick enough for your purpose, and work them into one Bar; or else it is used when you are to join, or
weld two pieces of Iron together end to end, to make them long enough; but, in this case, you must be very quick at the
Forge; for when your two ends are throughout of a good
Heat, and that the inside of the Iron be almost ready to Run, as well as the outside, you must very hastily snatch them both out of the Fire together, and (after you have with the Edge of your
Hammer scraped off such Scales or Dirt as may hinder their incorporating) with your utmost diligence clap your left hand-piece, upon your right hand-piece, and with all speed (lest you lose some part of your good Heat) fall to Hammering them together, and work them soundly into one another: and this, if your Bars be large, will require another, or somtimes two or three pair of Hands besides your own to do: but if it be not throughly
welded at the first
Heat, you must reiterate your
Heats so oft, till they be throughly
welded; then with a
Flame-heat (as
[Page 10] before) shape it, and afterwards smooth it with a
Blood-red Heat. To make your Iron come the sooner to a
Welding-heat, you must now and then with your
Hearth-staff stir up the Fire, and throw up those Cinders the Iron may have run upon; for they will never burn well, but spoil the rest of the Coals; and take a little white Sand between your Finger and your Thumb, and throw upon the heating Iron, then with your Slice, quickly clap the outside of your Fire down again; and with your
Washer dipt in Water, damp the outside of the Fire to keep the Heat in.
But you must take special Care that your Iron
burn not in the Fire, that is, that it do not
run or melt; for then your Iron will be so brittle, that it will not endure Forging without breaking, and so hard, that a
File will not touch it.
Some Smiths use to strew a little white Sand upon the
Face of the
Anvil also, when they are to hammer upon a
Welding-heat; for they say it makes the Iron
weld, or incorporate the better.
If through Mistake, or ill management, your Iron be too thin, or too narrow towards one of the ends; then if you have substance enough (and yet not too long) you may
up-set it, that is, take a
Flame-heat, and set the heated end upright upon the
Anvil, and hammer upon the cold end, till the heated end be beat, or
up-set, into the Body of your Work. But if it be a long piece of Work, and you fear its length may wrong the middle, you must hold it in your left hand, and lay it flat on the
Anvil; but so as the heated end intended to be
up-set, may lie a little over the further side of the
Anvil, and then with your
Hand-hammer in your right hand, beat upon the heated end of your work, minding that every stroak you take, you hold your work
[Page 11] stiff against the
Face of the
Hammer. Afterwards smooth it again with a
Blood-red Heat.
If you are to Forge a
Shoulder on one, or each side of your work, lay the Shank of your Iron at the place where your
Shoulder must be on the edge of your
Anvil ▪ that edge which is most convenient to your hand) that if more
Shoulders be to be made, turn them all successively, and hammer your Iron so, as that the Shank of the Iron that lies on the flat of the
Anvil, feel as well the weight of your Blows, as the
Shoulder at the edge of the
Anvil ▪ for should you lay your blows on the edge of the
Anvil only, it would instead of flatting the Shank to make the
Shoulder, cut your work through.
Your Work will sometimes require to have holes punched in it at the Forge, you must then make a Steel
Punch to the size and shape of the hole you are to strike, and harden the point of it without tempering, because the heat of the Iron will soften it fast enough, and sometimes too fast, but then you must re-harden it; then taking a
Blood-heat of your Iron, or if it be very large, almost a
Flame-heat; lay it upon your
Anvil, and with your left hand, place the point of the
Punch where the hole must be, and with the
Hand-hammer in your right hand punch the hole; or if your work be heavy, you may hold it in your left hand, and with your Punch fixed at the end of a
Hoop-stick, or some such Wood, hold the stick in your right hand, and place the point of your
Punch on the work where the hole must be, and let another Man strike, till your Punch come pretty near the bottom of your work; which when it does, the sides of your work round about the hole, will rise from the Face of the
Anvil, and your Punch will print a bunching mark upon the hole of a
Bolster, that is,
[Page 12] a thick Iron with a hole in it, and placing your Punch, as before, strike it through. But you must note, that as oft as you see your Punch heat, or change Colour, you take it out of the hole, and pop it into Water to re-harden it, or else it will batter in the hole you intend to strike, and not only spoil it self, but the Work too, by running aside in the Work. Having punched it through on the one side, turn the other side of your work, and with your Hammer set it flat and straight, and with a
Blood-heat punch it through on the other side also; so shall that hole be fit for the
File, or square bore, if the curiosity of your purposed Work cannot allow it to pass without filing. When your Work is Forged, do not quench it in water to cool it, but throw it down upon the
Floor, or
Hearth, to cool of it self; for the quenching it in water will harden it; as I shall shortly shew you, when I come to the Tempering of Steel.
Of
Brazing and
Soldering.
YOU may have occasion sometimes to
Braze or
Solder a piece of work; but it is used by Smiths only, when their work is so thin, or small, that it will not endure
Welding. To do this, take small pieces of Brass, and lay them on the place that must be brazed, and strew a little Glass beaten to powder on it to make it run the sooner, and give it a
Heat in the
Forge, till (by sometimes drawing it a little way out of the Fire) you see the Brass run. But if your work be so small, or thin, that you may fear the Iron will run as soon as the Brass, and so you lose your work in the Fire, then you must make a
Loam of three parts Clay, and one part Horse-dung, and after they are wrought and mingled very well together in your hands, wrap your work with the Brass, and a little beaten Glass upon
[Page 13] the place to be brazed close in the
Loam, and laying it a while upon the
Hearth of the
Forge to dry, put the lump into the Fire, and blow the
Bellows to it, till you perceive it have a full
Heat, that is, till the Lump look like a well burnt Coal of Fire; then take it out of the Fire, and let it cool: Afterwards break it up, and take out your Work.
Thus much of Forging in general. It remains now, that you know what sorts of Iron are fittest for the several Uses, you may have occasion to apply them.
Of several Sorts of
Iron, and their proper Uses.
IT is not my purpose, in this place, to tell you how Iron is made, I shall defer that till I come to treat of Mettals, and their Refinings. Let it at present satisfie those that know it not, that Iron is, by a violent Fire, melted out of hard Stones, called
Iron-Stones; of these
Iron-Stones, many Countries have great plenty. But because it wastes such great quantities of Wood to draw the Iron from them, it will not, in many Places, quit cost to use them. In most parts of
England, we have abundance of these
Iron-Stones; but our
English Iron, is generally a course sort of Iron, hard and brittle, fit for Fire-bars, and other such course Uses; unless it be about the Forrest of
Dean, and some few places more, where the Iron proves very good.
Swedish Iron is of all Sorts, the best we use in
England. It is a fine tough sort of Iron, will best endure the Hammer, and is softest to file; and therefore most coveted by Workmen, to work upon.
Spanish Iron, would be as good as
Swedish Iron, were it not subject to
Red-sear, (as Workmen phrase it) that is to crack betwixt hot and cold. Therefore when it falls under your hands, you
[Page 14] must tend it more earnestly at the Forge. But tho' it be good, tough, soft Iron, yet for many Uses, Workmen will refuse it, because it is so ill, and un-evenly wrought in the Bars, that it costs them a great deal of labour to smooth it; but it is good for all great works that require
welding, as the bodies of Anvils, Sledges, large Bell-clappers, large Pestles for Mortars, & all thick strong Bars,
&c. But it is particularly chosen by
Anchor-Smiths, because it abides the Heat better than other Iron, and when it is well wrought, is toughest.
There is some Iron comes from
Holland (tho' in no great quantity) but is made in
Germany. This Iron is called
Dort Squares, only because it comes to us from thence, and is wrought into square Bars three quarters of an Inch square. It is a bad, course Iron, and only fit for slight Uses, as Window-Bars, Brewers-Bars, Fire-Bars,
&c.
There is another sort of Iron used for making of
Wyer, which of all Sorts is the softest and toughest: But this Sort is not peculiar to any Country, but is indifferently made where any Iron is made, though of the worst sort; for it is the first Iron that runs from the
Stone when it is melting, and is only preserved or the making of
Wyer.
By what hath been said, you may see that the softest and toughest Iron is the best: Therefore when you chuse Iron, chuse such as bows oftenest before it break, which is an Argument of toughness; and see it break sound within, be grey of Colour like broken Lead, and free from such glistering Specks you see in broken
Antimony, no flaws or divisions in it; for these are Arguments that it is
[...]ound, and well wrought at the Mill.
THE several sorts of Files that are in common use are the
Square, the
Flat, the
three Square, the
half Round, the
Round, the
Thin File, &c. All these shapes you must have of several
Sizes, and of several
Cuts. You must have them of several sizes, as well because you may have several sizes of work, as for that it sometimes falls out that one piece of work may have many parts in it joined and fitted to one another, some of them great, and others small; And you must have them of several
Cuts, because the
Rough-tooth'd File cuts faster than the
Bastard-tooth'd File, the
Fine-tooth'd File faster than the
Smooth-tooth'd File.
The
Rough or
Course-tooth'd File (which if it be large, is called a
Rubber) is to take off the unevenness of your work which the
Hammer made in the Forging; the
Bastard-tooth'd file is to take out of your work, the deep cuts, or file-strokes, the
Rough-file made; the
Fine-tooth'd file is to take out the cuts, or file-strokes, the
Bastard-file made; and the
Smooth-file is to take out those cuts, or file-strokes, that the
Fine file made.
Thus you see how the
Files of several
Cuts succeed one another, till your Work is so smooth as it can be filed. You may make it yet smoother with
Emerick, Tripoli, &c. But of that in its proper place, because it suits not with this Section of
Filing.
You must take care when you use the
Rough File, that you go very lightly over those dents the
Hammer made in your work, unless your work be forged somewhat of the strongest, for the dents being irregularities in your work, if you should file away as much in them, as you do off the Eminencies or Risings, your work (whether it be straight or circular) would be as irregular, as it was before you filed it: And
[Page 16] when you file upon the Prominent, or rising Parts of your Work, with your
course cut File, you must also take care that you file them not more away than you need, for you may easily be deceived; because the
course File cuts deep, and makes deep scratches in the Work; and before you can take out those deep scratches with your finer cut Files, those places where the Risings were when your work was forged, may become dents to your Hammer dents; therefore file not those Risings quite so low, as the dents the Hammer made, but only so low as that the scratches the
Rough-file makes may lie as low, or deep in your work, as your Hammer dents do; for then, when you come with your smoother Cut Files, after your
Rough-file, the scratches of your
Rough-file, and your Hammer-strokes, or dents, may both come out together. But to do this with greater certainty, hold your File so, that you may keep so much of the length of your File as you can to rub, range, (or, as near range as you can) upon the length of your work; for so shall the File enter upon the second Rising on your work, before it goes off the first, and will slip over, and not touch the dent or hollow between the two Risings, till your Risings are brought into a straight line with your hollow dent. But of this more shall be said when I come to the Practice of Filing▪ upon several particular sorts of work.
If it be a square Bar, (or such like) you are to file upon, all its Angles, or Edges, must be left very sharp and straight. Therefore your
Vice being well set up, according to foregoing Directions, you must in your filing athwart over the
Chaps of the
Vice, be sure to carry both your hands you hold the
file in, truly Horizontal, or flat over the Work; for should you let either of
[Page 17] your hands mount, the other would dip, and the edge of that Square it dips upon would be taken off; and should you let your hand move never so little circularly, both the Edges you file upon would be taken off, and the Middle of your intended Flat would be left with a Rising on it. But this Hand-craft, you must attain to by Practice; for it is the great Curiosity in Filing.
If it be a round Piece, or Rod of Iron, you are to file upon, what you were forbid upon Square Work, you must perform on the Round for you must dip your Handle-hand, and mount your end-hand a little, and laying pritting near the end of your File to the Work, file circularly upon the Work, by mounting your Handle-hand by degrees, and dipping your End-hand, in such manner, as when the Middle of your File comes about the top of your Work, your File may be flat upon it, and as you continue your stroaks forwards, still keep your hands moving circularly till you have finished your full Stroak, that is, a Stroak the whole length of the File. By this manner of Circular filing, you keep your Piece, or Rod round; but should you file flat upon the top of your work, so many times as you shall remove, or turn your work in the
Vice, so many Flats, or Squares, you would have in your work; which is contrary to your purpose.
When you thrust your
File forwards, lean heavy upon it, because the
Teeth of the
File are made to cut forwards; but when you draw your
File back, to recover another thrust, lift, or bear the File lightly just above the work; for it cuts not coming back.
Of the making of Hinges, Locks, Keys, Screws, and Nuts, Small and Great.
Of
Hinges.
IN
Fig. 1. A the
Tail, B the
Cross, CDDDDE the
Joint, DDDD the
Pin-hole. When the
Joint at C on the
Tail, is pind in the
Joint at E in the
Cross, the whole
Hinge is called a
Cross-Garnet.
Hinges, if they be small (as for Cup-board doors;
Boxes, &c.) are cut out of cold Plate Iron with the
(a)Cold-Chissel, but you mark the out-lines of your intended
Hinge, as
Fig. 1. the
Cross-Garnet, either with Chalk, or else rase upon the Plate with the corner of the
Cold-Chissel, or any other hardned Steel that will scratch a bright stroke upon the Plate; and then laying the Plate flat upon the
Anvil, if the Plate be large, or upon the
(b)Stake, if the Plate be small, take the
Cold-Chissel in your left hand, and set the edge of it upon that Mark, or Rase, and with the
Hand-hammer in your right hand, strike upon the head of the
Cold-Chissel, till you cut, or rather punch the edge of the
Cold-Chissel, almost thro' the Plate in that Place, I say, almost through, because, should you strike it quite through, the edge of the
Cold-Chissel would be in danger of battering, or else breaking; for the
Face of the
Anvil is hardned Steel, and a light blow upon its
Face would wrong the edge of the
Cold-Chissel; besides, it sometimes happens, that the
Anvil, or
Stake, is not all over so hard as it should be, and then the
Cold-Chissel would cut the
Face of the
Anvil, or
Stake, and consequently spoil it: Therefore when the edge of the
Cold-Chissel comes pretty near the
[Page]
[figure]
[Page 19] bottom of the Plate, you must lay but light blows upon the
Cold-Chissel; and yet you must strike the edge of the
Cold-Chissel so near through the bottom of the Plate, that you may break the remaining substance asunder with your Fingers, or with a pair of
Plyers, or sometimes by pinching the Plate in the
Vice, with the Cut place close to the Superficies of the
Chaps of the
Vice; and then with your Fingers and Thumb, or your whole hand, wriggle it quite asunder. But having cut one breadth of the
Cold-Chissel, remove the edge of it forward in the Rase, and cut another breadth, and so move it successively, till your whole intended shape be cut out of the Plate.
When you cut out an
Hinge, you must leave on the length of the Plate AB in this Figure, Plate enough to lap over for the
Joints, I mean, to
Turn, or
Double about a round Pin, so big as you intend the Pin of your
Hinge shall be, and also Plate enough to
Weld upon the inside of the
Hinge below the
Pin-hole of the
Joint, that the
Joint may be strong.
The size, or diameter of the
Pin-hole, ought to be about twice the thickness of the Plate you make the
Hinge of, therefore lay a wyre of such a diameter towards the end B, in this Figure on
[figure]
the
Tail piece, a-thwart the Plate as CD, and
Double the end of the Plate B, over the wyre to lap over it, and reach as far as it can upon the end A; then
hammer the Plate that is lap'd over the wyre close to the wyre, to make the
Pin-hole round; but if your Plate be thick, it will require the taking of an
Heat to make the
[Page 20]hammer the closer to the wyre, and consequently make the
Pin-hole the rounder: Your work may also sometimes require to be Screwed into the
Vice, with the doubled end upwards, and the bottom side of the wyre close against the
Chaps of the
Vice, and then to
hammer upon the very top of the
Pin-hole to round it at the end also. When you have made the
Pin-hole round in the inside, take the
Pin CD out of the
Pin-hole, and put the
Joint-end of the
Hinge into the Fire to make a
Welding-heat; which when it hath, snatch it quickly out of the Fire, and
hammer, or
weld, the end B upon the
Tail-piece A till they be incorporate together. But you must have a care that you
hammer not upon the Plate of the
Pin-hole, lest you stop it up, or batter it; when it is well Welded, you must again put in the
Pin CD, and if it will not well go into the
Pin-hole, (because you may perhaps have
hammer'd either upon it, or too near it, and so have somewhat closed it) you must force it in with your
hammer; and if it require, take a
Blood-heat, or a
Flame-heat, of the
Joint end) and then force the
Pin into the
Pin-hole, till you find the
Pin-hole is again round within, and that the
Pin, or Wyre, turn evenly about within it.
Afterwards with a
Punch of hardned Steel (as you were taught
Page 11.12.)
Punch the
Nail-holes in the Plate; or if your Plate be very thin, you may
punch them with a
(c) cold
Punch. After all,
smooth it as well as you can with your
Hand-hammer; take a
Blood-red-heat, if your work require it, if not,
smooth it cold; so will the
Tail-piece be fit for the
File. Double, and
Weld the
Cross-piece, as you did the
Tail-piece.
Having
forg'd your
Hinge fit for the
File, you must proceed to make the
Joint, by cutting a Notch in the Middle of the
Pin-hole between DD in Plate 2. on the
Cross, as at E, and you must cut down the Ends of the
Pin-hole on the
[Page 21]Tail-piece, as at DD, till the
Joint at C fit exactly into the Notch in the
Cross, and that when the
Pin is put into the
Pin-hole DD on the
Cross, the
Pin-hole in the
Tail-piece may also receive the
Pin; then by holding the
Tail-piece in one Hand, and the
Cross in the other, double the
Tail and
Cross towards one another, to try if they move evenly and smoothly without shaking on the
Pin; which if they do, the
Joint is made; if they do not, you must examine where the Fault is, and taking the
Pin out, mend the Fault in the
Joint.
Then
File down all the Irregularities the
Cold-Chissel made on the Edges of your Work, and (if the Curiosity of Work require it)
file also the outer Flat of your Work. But tho'
Smiths that make Quantities of
Hinges, do
brighten them, (as they call it) yet they seldom
file them, but
Grinde them on a Grindstone till they become
bright, &c.
Having finished the
Joint, put the
Pin in again; but take care it be a little longer than the Depth of the
Joint, because you must batter the Ends of the
Pin over the outer Edges of the
Pin-hole, that the
Pin may not drop out when either Edge of the
Cross is turned upwards.
The chiefest Curiosity in the making these, and, indeed, all other
Hinges is, 1. That the
Pin-hole be exactly round, and not too wide for the
Pin. 2. That the
Joints are let exactly into one another, that they have no play between them, lest they shake upwards or downwards, nor yet are forced too hard into one another, lest when they are nailed on the Door, the
Joint be in Danger of Breaking. 3. That the
Cross, and the
Tail lie on the Under-side exactly flat, for should they warp out of flat when they are nailed on, the Nails would draw the
Joint a-wry, and not only make it move hard, and unevenly, but by oft Opening and Shutting break the
Joint. 4. If your Work be intended to be curious, the
[Page 22] true
Square-filing the Upper-side, as you were taught
Page 15, 16, 17. is a great Ornament.
(a) Smiths call all
Chissels they use upon cold Iron,
Cold-Chissels.
(b) The
Stake is a small
Anvil, which either stands upon a broad Iron Foot, or Basis, on the
Work-Bench, to remove as Occasion offers; or else it hath a strong Iron
Spike at the Bottom, which Iron
Spike is let into some certain Place of the
Work-Bench not to be removed. Its Office is to set small cold Work straight upon, or to Cut or Punch upon with the
Cold-Chissel, or
Cold-Punch.
(c)
Smiths call all
Punches they use upon cold Iron,
Cold-Punches.
If the
Hinge you are to make be large, and Plate-Iron is not strong enough for it, you must
Forge it out of Flat Bar-Iron, as you were taught from
Page 7 to
Page 12.
The manner of working
Duftails, Fig. 5. and
Side-hinges, Fig. 6. &c. is (the shape considered) in all respects the same I have here shewed you in
Cross-Garnets; but in these (or others) you may (if your Work require Curiosity) instead of
Doubling for the
Joint, Forge the
Round for the
Joint of full Iron, and afterwards
Drill a Hole through it, for the
Pin-hole; and by curious
Filing, work them so true into one another, that both sides of the
Hinge shall seem but one Piece; as I shall shew more at large, when I come to the making of Compasses, and other Joints for Mathematical Instruments.
Of
Locks and
Keys.
AS there are
Locks for several Purposes, as
Street-door Locks, called
Stock-Locks; Chamber-door Locks, called
Spring-Locks; Cupboard-Locks, Chest-Locks, Trunk-Locks, Pad-Locks, &c. So are there several Inventions in
Locks, I mean, in
[Page 23] the Making and Contriving their
Wards, or
Guards. But the Contrivances being almost innumerable, according to the various Fancies of Men, shall be referred to another Time to discourse; and I shall now shew you the Working of a
Spring-Lock, which when you know how to do, your Fancy may play with Inventions, as you best like.
In
Fig. 2. AAAA the
Main-plate, BC the
Key-hole. EDE the
Top-hook, EE
Cross-wards, F the
Bolt, G the
Bolt-Toe, or
Bolt-Nab. H the
Draw-back Spring, I the
Tumbler, K the
Pin of the
Tumbler, LL the
Staples.
In
Fig. 3. AAAA the
Cover-Plate, B the
Pin, BCD the
Main-ward, DD
Cross-wards, E the
Step-ward or
Dap-ward.
In
Fig. 4. A the
Pin-hole, B the
Step, or
Dap-ward, C the
Hook-ward, D the
Middle, or
Main Cross-ward, EE the
Cross-ward, F the
Main-ward, GG
Cross-ward, H the
Shank, I the
Pot, or
Bread, K the
Bow-ward, L the
Bow, BCDEEFGG the
Bit.
First, Cut out of an Iron Plate with a
Cold-Chissel, the Size and Shape of the
Main-Plate, as you were taught to cut the
Cross and
Tail-piece of the
Cross-Garnet; then consider what Depth you intend the
Bit of the
Key shall have, and set that Depth off on the
Main-Plate, by leaving about half an Inch of Plate between the Bottom of the
Key-hole, and the Lower Edge of the
Main-Plate, as at C (or more or less, according to the Size of the
Lock.) Then measure with a Pair of
Composses between the Bottom of the
Bit, and the
Centre of your
Key (or your intended
Key) and set that distance off from C to B, near the Middle between the two Ends of the
Main-Plate, and with the
(a)Prick-punch, make there a Mark to set one
Foot of your
Compasses in, then opening your
Compasses to the Middle of the
Bit of your intended
Key, as
[Page 24] to D, describe the Arch EDE for the true Place the
Top-hoop must stand on.
Then cut one other Piece of Plate as AAAA in
Fig. 3. for a
Cover-plate, with two Pieces one on each side, long enough to make
Studs of to turn downwards, and then outward again as FF, GG, that the
Cover-plate may stand off the
Main-plate, the Breadth of the
Bit of the
Key; and at the two End of these
Studs Punch holes, as GG, to
Rivet the
Cover-plate into the
Main-plate. In the Middle of this Plate make the
Centre, as at B, then open your
Compasses to three Quarters the Length of the
Bit, and half the Diameter of the
Shank of the
Key, and placing one
Foot in the Point B, describe with the other
Foot the Arch DCD for the true Place of the
Main-ward, then set your
Compasses to a little more than half the Diameter of the
Shank, and place one
Foot (as before) in the
Centre B, and with the other
Foot describe the small Arch E, for the true Place the
Step-ward, or (as some call it) the
Dap-ward must stand: So have you the true Places of the
Wards, for an ordinary
Spring-Lock; you may (if the Depth of your
Bit will bear it) put more
Wards in your Plates. But you must note, that the more
Wards you put in, the weaker you make your
Key; because that to every
Ward on the Plates, you must make a Slit, or
Ward in the
Bit of the
Key; and the more
Wards you make, the weaker the Iron of the
Bit will be; and then if the
Bolt shoot not easily backwards, or forwards, the
Bit may be in Danger of Breaking.
Having marked on your Plates the Places of all your
Wards, you must take thin Plate, and with
Hammering and
Filing make them both
(b)Hammer-hard, and of equal Thickness all the way. Then
file one Edge very straight, by laying a
straight Ruler just within the Edge of it, and drawing, or racing with a Point of hardned Steel, a bright Line by the side of the
Ruler; File away
[Page 25] the Edge of the Plate to that Line, then draw (as before) another straight Line Parallel to the first straight Line, or which is all one, Parallel to the filed Edge, just of the Breadth you intend the
Wards shall be, and file as before, only, you must leave two, or sometimes three
Studs upon this Plate, one near each End, and the other in the Middle, to
Rivet into the
Main-plate, to keep the
Ward fixt in its Place. Therefore you must take care when you elect this thin Piece of Plate, that it be broad enough for the
Ward, and these Studs too. Then laying the Plate a-thwart the
Pike of the
Bickern, hold your Hand even with the
Face of the
Bickern, and
hammer this Plate down somewhat by the side of the
Pike, and by Degrees you may (with care taken) bring it unto a circular Form, just of the Size of that Circle you described on the
Main-plate; which when you have done, you must apply this
Ward to the Circle you described on the
Main-plate; setting it in the Position you intend it shall be fixed, and marking with a Steel Point where the
Studs stand upon that Circle, in those marks
Punch holes to
Rivet the
Studs to. Work so by all the other
Wards.
If you have a
Pin to the
Lock, Punch a Hole through the
Centre on the
Cover-plate, somewhat smaller than the Wyre you are to make your
Pin of, because you may then
file one End of the
Pin away to a
Shank, which must fit the smaller Hole on the Plate, and the whole Thickness of the
Pin will be a
Sholder, which will keep the
Pin steddy in the
Centre-hole of the Plate, when the
Pin is
rivetted into the Plate. But because there is some Skill to be used in
Rivetting, I shall, before I proceed any farther, teach you
RIvetting is to batter the Edges of a
Shank over a Plate, or other Iron, the
Shank is let into, so as the Plate, or other Iron, may be clinched close, and fixed between the Battering at the End of the
Shank and the
Sholder. So that
When you
Rivet a
Pin into a Hole, your
Pin must have a
Sholder to it thicker than the Hole is wide, that the
Sholder slip not through the Hole, as well as the
Shank; but the
Shank of the
Pin must be exactly of the Size of the Hole the
Shank must be
Rivetted into, and somewhat longer than the Plate is thick;
file the End of the
Shank flat, so shall the Edges of the End, the easilier batter over the Plate; then put your
Shank into the Hole, wherein it is to be
Rivetted, but be sure you force the
Shank close up to the
Sholder; then turn the Top of this
Sholder downwards (Plate and all) upon your
Stake, but lay it so, as that the
Sholder lie solid, and the
Shank, at the same time, stand directly upright, and with your left Hand, keep your Work bearing hard upon the Flat, or
Face of the
Stake. Then holding your
Hammer in your Right-hand, hold the Edge of the
Face of it Dripping a-slope from the Right-hand outwards, and lay pretty light Blows upon the Edge of the End of the
Shank, turning with your Left-hand your Work round to the
Face of the
Hammer, till you have battered the Edges of the
Shank quite round about; but this is seldom done, with once turning your Work about; therefore you may thus work it round again and again, till you find it is pretty well
Rivetted; then lay heavier Blows upon it, sometimes with the
Face, sometimes with the
Pen of the
Hammer, till the End of the
Shank is battered effectually over the Plate.
One main Consideration in
Rivetting is, that the
Pin you
rivet in, stand upright to the Plate,
[Page 27] or other Iron you
rivet it upon; for if it do not stand upright, you will be forced to set it upright, after it is
rivetted, either in the
Vice, or with your
Plyers, or with your
Hammer, and that may, if your Plate be thin, bow it, or if it be thick, break the Shank, or else the
Sholder of your
Rivet, and so you lose your Labour, and sometimes spoil your Work.
Another Consideration is, that when you
rivet a
Pin to any Plate, and you fear it may afterwards twist about by some force that may be offered it, you must, to provide against this Danger,
file the
Shank you intend to
Rivet, either Square, or Triangular, and make the Hole in the Plate you
rivet it into, of the same Size and Form, and then
rivet in the
Shank, as before. There are two ways to make your Hole, Square or Triangular, one is by
filing it into these Forms, when it is first Punched round; the other by making a
Punch of Steel, of the Size and Shape of the
Shank you are to
rivet, and punching that
Punch into the Plate, make the same Form.
Now to return where I left off. The
Pins and
Shanks of these
Wards must be made of a long Square Form, because, (the Plates of the
Wards being thin) should you make them no broader than the Plate is thick, the
Studs, or
Shanks would be too weak to hold the
Wards, therefore you must make the
Rivetting-shank three or four times, or sometimes more, as broad as the Plate is thick, and then
rivet them in, as you were taught just now.
Then place the
Cover-plate upon the
Main-plate, so as the
Centre of the
Cover-plate, may stand directly over and against the
Centre of the
Main-plate, and make marks through the Hole GG, of the
Studs of the
Cover-Plate upon the
Main-plate, and on those Marks Punch holes, and fit two
Pins into them, to fasten the
Cover-plate on to
[Page 28] the
Main-plate, but you must not yet
rivet them down, till the
Key-hole be made, because this
Cover-plate would then stop the Progress of the
File through the
Main-plate, when you
file the
Key-hole. When you have placed the
Cover-plate upon the
Main-plate, and fitted it on with
Pins, so, as you may take it off, and put it on again, as your Work may require, you must
Punch the
Key-hole, or rather drill two Holes close by one another, if the
Key-hole falls near the
Wards, because
Punching may be apt to set the
Wards out of Form, and with small
Files, file the two Holes into one another, to make the Hole big enough to come at it with bigger
Files, and then file your
Key-hole to your intended Size and Shape.
The
Key-hole being finished, forge your
Key, as you were taught,
Page 7. and if your
Key is to have a
Pin-hole, drill the Hole in the Middle of the End of the
Shank, then file the
Wards, or Slits in the
Bit with thin
Files; yet sometimes Smiths
Punch, or cut them with a
Cold-Chissel, at the same Distances from the Middle of the
Pin-hole in the End of the
Shank (which is the same
Centre, which was made before, in the
Main-plate on the
Cover-plate) which you placed the
Wards at, from the
Centre of the
Main and
Cover-plate. But before you file these
Wards too deep into the
Bit of the
Key, make Trials, by putting the
Bit into the
Key-hole, whether the
Wards in the
Bit, will agree with the
Wards on the Plates, which if they do, you may boldly cut them to the Depth of the
Wards on the Plate; if not, you must alter your Course till they do; but you must take great Care in Cutting the
Wards down straight, and square to the Sides of the
Bit; for if they be not cut down straight, the
Wards on the Plates, will not fall in with the
Wards in the
Bit of the
Key; and if they be not Square to the Sides of the
Bit, the
Bit will not only be weaker than it need be, but it will
[Page 29] shew unhandsomely, and like a Botch to the Eye.
The
Cross and
Hock-wards is made, or, at least, entred at the
Forge, when the Iron hath a
Blood, or almost a
Flame Heat, yet sometimes Smiths do it on cold Iron, with a thin
Chissel, as you was taught
Page 11.12. But you must take care that your
Chissel be neither too thick, or too broad, for this Punching of
Wards is only to give the thin
Files Entrance to the Work; which Entrance when you have, you may easily file your
Cross, or
Hook-wards, wider or deeper, as your Work may require; but if your
Chissel be too broad, or too thick, it will make the
Wards in the
Bit too long, or too wide, and then (as I said before) the
Bit of your
Key will prove weaker than it needs to be.
Having made the
Wards on the Plate, and in the
Bit of the
Key, you must
Forge the
Bolt of a considerable Substance, Thick and Square at the End that shoots into the
Staple in the Frame of the Door, that it may be strong enough to guard the whole Door; but the rest of the
Bolt that lies between the two
Staples on the
Main-plate, may be made very thin inwards, that is, the Side that lies towards the
Main-plate, which because it cannot be seen when the
Bolt is fixed upon the Plate, I have made a Figure of it, and turned the Inside to View, as in
Fig. 4. where you may see, that the End A, hath a considerable Substance of Iron to guard the whole Door, as aforesaid, and B is a Square
Stud, which doth as well keep the Outside flat of the
Bolt on the Range, as serve for a
Stud for the
Spring H in
Fig. 2. to press hard against, and shoot the
Bolt forwards: This
Bolt must be wrought straight on all its Sides, except the Topside, which must be wrought straight only as far as the
Sholder G, called the
Toe, or
Nab of the
Bolt, which rises, as you see in the Figure, considerably high, above the Straight on the Top of the
Bolt; The Office of this
Nab,[Page 30] is to receive the Bottom of the
Bit of the
Key, when in turning it about, it shoots the
Bolt backwards or forwards.
Having
forged and
filed the
Bolt, you must fit the Hollow-side of it towards the
Main-plate, at that Distance from the
Key-hole, that when the
Key is put into the
Key-hole, and turned towards the
Bolt, the Bottom of the
Bit may fall almost to the Bottom of the
Nab, and shoot the
Bolt back so much, as it needs to enter the
Staple in the
Door-frame. And having found this true Place for the
Bolt, you must with square
Staples, just fit to contain the
Bolt with an easie Play, fasten these
Staples, by
Rivetting them with the
Bolt within them, one near the
Bolt end, the other near the
Nab end, as at LL to the
Main-plate.
Then
Punch a pretty wide Hole in the
Main-plate, as at K, to receive a strong
Pin, and
file a
Sholder to the
Shank of the
Pin that goes into the Plate. This
Pin is called the
Pin of the Tumbler; the
Tumbler is marked I, which is a long Piece of
Iron, with a round Hole at the Top to fit the
Pin of the
Tumbler into, that it may move upon it, as on a
Joint, and it hath an
Hook returning at the Lower End of it, to fall into the Breech of the
Bolt, and by the
Spring H forces the
Bolt forwards, when it is shot back with the
Key. This
Spring is made of Steel, and afterwards temper'd (as I shall shew you in proper Place.) It is fixed at the Bottom of the
Main-plate, by two small Shanks proceeding from that Edge of the
Spring that lies against the
Main-plate, as at OO: These Shanks are to be
rivetted (as you were taught even now) on the other Side of the
Main-plate.
All things being thus fitted,
punch an Hole on each Corner of the
Main-plate for
Nails to enter, that must nail the
Lock to the
Door. Or if you intend to screw your
Lock on the
Door, you must make wide Holes, big enough to receive the
[Page 31]Shank of the
Screw. Last of all,
rivet down your
Cover-plate to the
Main-plate, and
file your
Key, and
polish it too, if you will; so shall the
Lock and
Key be finished.
(a) A
Prick-punch, is a Piece of temper'd Steel, with a round Point at one End, to prick a round Mark in cold Iron.
(b)
Hammer-hard, is when you harden Iron, or Steel, with much hammering on it.
The making of
Screws and
Nuts.
THe
Shank of the
Screw for Doors, and many other Purposes, must be
forged square near the
Head, because it must be let into a Square-hole, that it may not twist about when the
Nut is turned about hard upon the
Screw-pin. Therefore take a Square-bar, or Rod of Iron, as near the Size of the
Head of the
Screw-pin as you can, and taking a
Flame-heat of it, lay so much of this Bar as you intend for the Length of the
Shank, with one Square-side flat, upon the Hither-side of the
Anvil, and
hammer it down to your intended Thickness: But have a care you do not strike your Iron on this Side the Edge of the
Anvil, lest you cut the Iron, as I told you
Page 11. Thus, at once, you will have two Sides of your
Shank forged; the Under-side made by the
Anvil, and the Upper-side beaten flat with the
Hammer: The
Head will be in the main Rod of Iron; then if your Iron grows cold, give it another
Heat, and lay one of the unwrought Sides upon the Hither-side of the
Anvil, just to the
Head, and
hammer that down, as before, so shall the two other Square-sides be made; then
hammer down the Corners of so much of this
Shank, as you intend for the
Screw-pin, and round it, as near as you can, with the
Hammer; set then the
Chissel to the Thickness you intend the
Head shall have, and strike it about half through, then turn the Sides successively, and cut each Side also half through, till it be quite cut off. If the
Sholder be not square enough, hold it in your
Square-nos'd
[Page 32] Tongs, and take another
Heat, and with speed (lest your Work cool) screw the
Shank into the
Vice, so as the
Sholder may fall flat upon the
Chaps of the
Vice; then
hammer upon the
Head, and square the
Sholder on two Sides, do the like for squaring the other two Sides. This was, in part, taught you before, in
Page 11. but because the cutting this Iron Rod, or Bar, just above the
Sholder makes the
Head, and for that I did not mention it there, I thought fit (since the Purpose required it) to do it here: The
Forging of the
Nuts are taught before,
Page 11.12.
Having
forged and
filed your
Shank square, and the
Head either Square or Round, as you intend it shall be,
file also the
Screw-pin, from the Risings and dents left at the
Forge; and
file it a little Tapering towards the End, that it may enter the
Screw-plate; the Rule how much it must be Tapering is this, consider how deep the Inner
Grooves of the
Screw-plate lie in the outer
Threds, and
file the End of the
Screw-pin so much smaller than the rest of the
Screw-pin, for the outer
Threds of the
Screw-plate must make the
Grooves on the
Screw-pin, and the
Grooves in the
Screw-plate, will make the
Threds on the
Screw-pin. Having fitted your self with a Hole in your
Screw-plate (that is, such a Hole whose Diameter of the hollow
Grooves, shall be equal to the Diameter of the
Screw-pin, but not such a Hole, whose Diameter of the outer
Threds, shall be equal to the Diameter of the
Screw-pin, for then the
Screw-plate will indeed turn about the
Screw-pin, but not cut any
Grooves, or
Threds in it)
screw the
Shank with the
Head downwards in the
Vice, so as that the
Screw-pin may stand directly upright, and take the
Handle of the
Screw-plate in your Right-hand, and lay that Hole flat upon the
Screw-pin, and press it very hard down over it, and turn the
Screw-plate evenly about with its
Handle towards you, from the Right towards the Left-hand, so shall the outer
[Page 33]Threds of the
Screw-plate cut
Grooves into the
Screw-pin, and the substance of the Iron on the
Screw-pin, will fill up the
Grooves of the
Screw-plate, and be a
Thred upon the
Screw-pin. But take this for Caution, that, as I told you, you must not make your
Screw-pin too small, because the
Screw-plate will not cut it, so if you make it too big (if it do enter the
Screw-plate where it is Taper) it will endanger the breaking it, or, if it do not break it, yet the
Screw-plate will, after it gets a little below the Tapering, go no farther, but work and wear off the
Thred it made about the Tapering.
To fit the
Pin therefore to a true size, I, in my Practise, use to try into what
hole of the
Screw-plate, the
Tap or place of the
Tap, (if it be a tapering
Tap,) I make the
Nut with, will just slide through; (
Threads and all;) (which generally in most
Screw-plates is the
hole next above that to be used) for then turning my
Pin about in that
hole, if the
Pin be irregularly
filed, or but a little too big on any part of it, the
Threds of that
Hole will cut small marks upon the
Pin, on the irregular places, or where it is too big; so that afterwards
filing those Marks just off, I do at once
file my
Pin truly round, and small enough to fit the
H
[...]le I make my
Screw-pin with.
As the
Hole of the
Screw-plate must be fitted to the
Screw-pin, so must the
Screw-tap that makes the
Screw in the
Nut, be fitted to to the round
hole of the
Nut; but that
Tap must be of the same size of your
Screw-pin too, which you may try by the same
hole of the
Screw-plate you made the
Scr
[...]w-pin with.
Screw the
Nut in the
Vice directly flat, that the
hole may stand upright, and put the
Screw-tap upright in the
hole; then if your
Screw-tap have an
handle, turn it by the
handle hard round in the
Hole, so will the
Screw-tap work it self into the
Hole, and make
Grooves in it to fit the
Threds of
[Page 34] the
Screw-pin. But if the
Screw-tap have no
handle, then it hath its upper end filed to a long square, to fit into an hollow square, made near the
handle of the
Screw-plate; but that long square hole, over the long square on the top of the
Tap, and then by turning about the
Screw-plate, you will also turn about the
Tap in the
hole ▪ and make
Grooves and
Threds in the
Nut.
But though small
Screws are made with
Screw-plates, yet great
Screws, s
[...]ch as are for
Vices, Hot-Pr
[...]sses, Printing-Presse, &c. are not made with
Screw-plates, [...] must
[...] out of the main Iron, with heavy blow
[...] [...] a
Cold-Chissel. The manner of making them, is as follows.
The Rules and manner of
Cutting Worms upon great Screws.
THE
Threds of
Screws, when they are bigger than can be made in
Screw-plates, are call'd
Worms. They consist in length, breadth and depth; the length of a
Worm begins at the one end of the
Spindle, and ends at the other; the breadth of the
Worm, is contain'd between any two
Grooves on the
Spindle, viz. The upper and under
Groove of the
Worm, in every part of the
Spindle; the depth of the
Worm, is cut into the Diameter of the
Spindle, viz. The depth, between the outside of the
Worm, and the bottom of the
Groove.
The depth ought to be about the one seventh part of the Diameter, on each side the
Spindle:
You ought to make the
Groove wider than the
Worm is broad, because the
Worm being cut out of the same intire piece with the
Spindle, will be as strong as the
Worm in the
Nut, tho' the
Worm [...] be smaller; for you cannot come
[...] the
Nut, to cut it with
Fl
[...]es, as you
[...], and therefore you must either
[Page 35]Turn up a Rod of Iron, to twist round about the
Grooves on the
Spindle, and then take it off, and
Braze it into the
Nut, or else you must
Cast a
Nut of
Brass upon the
Spindle, which will neither way be so strong as the
Worm cut out of the whole Iron, by so much as
Brass is a weaker Mettal than Iron, and therefore it is that you ought to allow the
Worm in the
Nut, a greater breadth than the
Worm on the
Spindle, that the strength of both may, as near as you can, be equaliz'd; for both being put to equal force, ought to have equal strength. The
Worm may very well be the one seventh part smaller than the
Groove is wide, as aforesaid.
Having consider'd what breadth the
Worm on the
Spindle shall have, take a small thin Plate of Brass, or Iron, and
file a square notch at the end of it, just so wide, and so deep, as your
Worm is to be broad and deep, and
file the sides of the Plate that this notch stands between, just to the width of the
Groove. This Plate, must be a
Gage to
file your
Worm and
Groove to equal breadth by; then draw a straight and upright Line the whole length of the
Spindle; divide from this line the Circumference of the whole
Spindle into eight equal Parts, and through those Divisions, draw seven Lines more parallel to the first Line; then open your
Compasses just to the breadth of one
Worm, and one
Groove, and set off that distance
[...]s oft as you can, from the one end of the Spindle to the other, (but I should first have told you, that the end of your Spindle must be square to the outside) and with a
Prick-Punch, make a mark to every setting off on that line: Do the like to all the other straight upright Lines. Note, that you may chuse one of these eight upright Lines for the first, and make the next towards your left Hand, the second (but then the first must stand towards you) and the
[Page 36] next that, the third, and so on. And the top mark of every one of these upright straight Lines, shall be call'd the first Mark, the next under that the second Mark, the third, the third Mark, and so downwards in Order and Number.
Having marked one of these eight Lines at the top of the
Spindle, to begin the winding of the
Worm at, with a Black-lead Pencil, draw a line from that Mark to the second Mark, on the next upright Line towards the left hand, from thence continue drawing on with your Pencil to the third Mark, on the third upright Line, draw on still to the fourth Mark, on the fourth upright Line, and so onwards, till you have drawn over the eight straight Lines, which when you have done, you must still continue on, drawing downwards to each lower Mark on each successive upright Line, till you have drawn your
Worm from end to end: Then examine, as well as you can, by your Eye, whether the
Worm you have carried on from Mark to Mark with the Black-led Pencil, do not break into Angles, which if it do any where, you must mend it in that place: Then with the edge of an
half-round File, file a small Line in the Black-lead Line, and be sure that the Line you are
filing, run exactly through all the Marks that the Black-lead Pencil should have run through (if it did not, for want of good guidance of the Hand.) This small Line is only for a guide to cut the
Groove down by; for the making of a
Screw is, indeed nothing else, but the cutting the
Groove down, for then the
Worm remains: But you must not
file in this small line, but leave it as a guide to lie on the middle of the
Worm (as I said before): Therefore to cut down the
Groove, take a
Cold-Chissel, somewhat thinner than you intend the
Groove shall be wide,
viz. about
[Page 37] the thickness of the breadth of the
Worm, and, with heavy blows, cut out the
Groove pretty near. The reason why you should not offer to cut the
Grooves to their full wedth at the first, is, because your Hand may carry the
Cold-Chissel somewhat awry, and should your
Cold-Chissel be as thick as the
Groove is wide, you could not smooth the Irregularities out, without making the
Worm narrower than you intended it: Then with a
Flat-file open and smooth the
Groove, filing in the middle between the two next fine Lines cut by the
half-round File, till you have wrought the
Spindle from end to end, so shall the
Worm remain. But you must not expect, that though the
Groove be cut, it is therefore finished, for now you must begin to use the thin
Plate-Gage, and try first, whether the
Worm have equal breadth all the way. Secondly, whether the
Grove have equal breadth all the way. And Thirdly, whether the
Groove have equal depth all the way; and where ever you find the
Worm too broad, you must
file it thinner, and where the
Groove is not deep enough,
file it deeper; therefore in cutting down the
Groove you may observe, that if, at first, you
file the
Worm never so little too narrow or the
Groove never so little too deep, you shall have all the rest of the
Worm or
Groove to
file over again; because the whole
Worm must be brought to the breadth of the smallest part of it, and the whole
Groove to the depth of the deepest place all the way, especially if the
Nut be to be
Cast in
Brass upon the
Spindle; because the Mettal running close to the
Spindle will bind on that place, and not come off it; but if the
Nut be not to be
Cast in
Brass, but only hath a
Worm brazed into it, this niceness is not so absolutely necessary, because that
Worm is first
Turned up, and bowed into the
Grooves of the
Spindle, and you may try that before it is
[Page 38]Braz'd in the
Nut, and if it go not well about, you may mend, or botch it, either by
Hammering or
Filing, or both.
The manner of
Casting the
Nut upon the
Spindle, I shall shew when I come to the
Casting of
Mettals; and the manner of
Brazing hath been Taught already.
Num. I.
fol. 12, 13.
If your
Spindle is to have three or four
Worms winding about it, as
Coining-Presses and
Printing-Presses have, that they may not wear out too fast, you must divide the Circumference into three or four equal Parts, and having straight upright Lines, drawn as before, begin a
Worm at each of those three, or four Divisions, on the Circumference, and considering the breadth of your
Worm and width of your
Groove, measure that width as oft as you can on all the upright Lines, and making Marks on those at each Setting off, draw as before, a Line from the end of the
Spindle, on the first upright Line to the Mark below it, which is the second Mark on the second upright Line, from thence to the third Mark, on the third upright Line, and so on to the other end of the
Spindle. Having drawn the first
Worm, work the other
Worm as this.
Thus much may at present suffice for
great Screws.
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works
Viz. The making of Jacks and Bullet-Molds, the twisting of Iron, and Case-hardning it, with the use of some Tools not treated of before: Also of the several sorts of Steel, the manner of Softning, Hardning and Tempering them.
Of
Jacks.
FIG. 1. is call'd a
Worm-Jack. AB the
Foreside, AC the
Back-side, AA the
Top-piece, BC the
Bottom-piece, altogether the
Jack-frame, EEK the
Main-Spindle, NON the
Main-Wheel and
Barrel, O the
Barrel, D the
Wind-up-piece, fastned into the
Barrel, FF the
Worm-wheel Spindle, G the
Worm-wheel, Q the
Worm-Nut, H the
Worm, R the
Stud of the
Worm-Spindle, D the
Worm-Loop, L the
Wind-up-piece, M the
Winch or
Winder or
Handle, the Iron part is the
Winder, the Wood the
Handle, S the
Eye of the Winder, II the
Fly, T the
Socket of the
Fly, V, the
Struck-Wheel, X the
Stayes or
Back fastnings.
First you are to Forge the
Jack-frame, and on the left side of the
Foreside, a Shank for the
Stud of the
Worm-spindle, as you are taught
Numb. I.
fol. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. and then file it as you were taught
Numb. I.
fol. 14, 15, 16.
[Page 40]The
top and
bottom Pieces are let into square holes at the ends of the
Fore and
Backside. But you must Forge the
top and
bottom Pieces with two small Squares towards the ends of them, and two round ends for
Screw-pins, beyond those squares. The small squares are to be fitted into square holes into the
Fore and
Backsides, and the round
Screw-pins are to make
Screws of, to which a square
Nut is to be fitted to draw the
top and
bottom Pieces close and right up to the insides of the
Fore and
Backsides. The manner of Filing of these Ends you were, in part, taught
Numb. II.
fol. 15, 16. and
Numb. I.
fol. 29. but another way is by trying your Work with an Instrument, call'd by Workmen, a
Square, as you see describ'd in this Figure.
Of the
Square and its Vse.
THE sides ABC are call'd the
Outer-square; the sides DEF the
Inner-square. Its Use is
[figure]
thus. If your Work, as in this Case, be an
Outer-square, you must use the
Inner-square, DEF to try it by; applying either the side ED or DF (but suppose the side ED) to one of the sides of your Work, chuse the flattest and truest wrought; if neither of the sides be flat, make of them flat, as you were taught
Numb. I.
fol. 15, 16. if then you find the side DF of your
Square lie all the way even upon the adjoining side of your Work, you may conclude those sides are Square; but if the adjoining side of your Work comply not all the way with the adjoining side of the
Square, you must file away your Work where the
Square rides upon it, till the whole side be wrought to comply with
[Page 41] the adjoining side of the
Square, that is, till both the sides of your Work agree with both the sides of the
Squares, when they are appli'd to one another. Having tried two sides Square, make a third side of your Work Square, by applying one of the sides of the
Square to one of those sides of your Work, that are already made square, and as before, try the third untry'd side, and make that Square; and by the same Rule make the fourth side square.
If the Work you are to file be an hollow square, you must apply the outer Square ABC to it, and try how, when one side of the
Square, is applied to one side of your Work, the other side of your Work agrees with the other side of the
Square; which if it do, all is well: But if the
Square and the Work comply not with one another, you must file the Work where it bears the
Square off. But to return where I left.
Having made these two ends square, you must fit the length of them to the thickness of the
Fore and
Backsides into which they are to enter, but so as the Squares be not full so long as to come quite thro' the
Fore and
Backsides, lest when the
Nuts are screw'd on the
Screw-pins that are at the ends of these Squares, they screw full up to the Squares, and bear against the corners of them; which if they do, the
Nuts will not draw the
Fore and
Backsides close against the shoulder of the Squares, on the
top and
bottom Pieces, and then the whole
Jack Frame will not stand fast and firm together.
But before you fit this
Frame thus together, you must consider the Diameter of the
Main-wheel, that you may Punch round Holes in the
Fore and
Backsides to enter the
Main-spindle. Therefore open your Compass to half the intended Diameter of the
Main-wheel, and half a quarter, or an whole quarter of an Inch more for play, between
[Page 42] the Semi-diameter of the
main Wheel, and the upper flat of the
bottom Piece, and set that distance off from the upper flat of the
bottom Piece, on the
Fore and
Backsides, and with a round Punch, somewhat smaller than the intended size of the
main Spindle, Punch Holes at that setting off. Your Punch must be smaller than the
main Spindle, because the holes may perhaps not be so exactly round, or Punch'd so truly upright, or perfectly smooth as they ought to be; and should you make the holes so wide at first as they need to be, you could not mend them, without making them wider. These holes must be Punch'd at the
Fire or
Forge (as Smiths say, when they take an
Heat of their Work to Punch it) because the
Fore and the
Backsides are
too strong (as Smiths say) that is, too thick to Punch with the
Cold Punch. The way of Punching them you were taught
Numb. I.
fol. 11, 12. Besides a
Cold Punch is commonly made flat at the bottom, and therefore does not prick an Hole, but cut an Hole (if the Iron be not too strong) for that flat bottom, and the upright side about it, met in an Angle or Edge at the bottom, which Edge, by the force of the Hammer, cuts the Iron (if it be not too strong) when it is laid upon a
Bolster, as it is describ'd
Numb. I.
fol. 12. and should you cut out so much Iron in the
Fore and
Backsides, as would entertain the
main Spindle (it being thick) you will make the
Fore and
Backsides too wide; therefore as I said, the Holes must be prickt in the
Fore and
Backsides at the
Fire or
Forge, which with a sharp pointed
Punch is sooner done; nor does pricking diminish the substance or strength of the Iron, but makes it swell out at the sides, and retain both substance and strength. The irregularity or swelling out that this Punching makes on the flats of the
Fore and
Backsides, you must Hammer down
[Page 43] again with almost a
Blood-red-heat, I say, almost a
Blood-red-heat; because, should you take too great an
Heat, you may make the
Fore and
Backsides stretch, and so put the whole
Jack-frame out of order.
Having punch'd the Holes for the
main Spindle, you must Punch the Holes in the
Fore and
Backsides for the
Worm-wheel Spindle, as you Punch the Holes for the
main Spindle; but these must be small Holes, to entertain the small Ends or Pins of the
Worm-wheel Spindle.
These Holes thus Punch'd, may perhaps not be exactly round or fit your size, nor will they be smooth enough within; therefore, with a
aSquare-bore, you must
b open them wider to your size, and that opening them in the inside, will both round
[...]nd smooth them.
You must also Punch a square hole towards the top of the
Foreside, for the
Shank of the
Worm-Loop.
Then Forge and sit in your
Main-wheel Spindle, and your
Worm-wheel Spindle, which Spindles must both be exactly straight between the corners of their two ends (unless you like to have Moldings for Ornaments on them) and Forge a Square towards the ends of both the Spindles, to fit into a square hole in the middle of the
Cross of their
Wheels, and leave substance enough for a shoulder beyond the square, to stop the square hole in the
Cross of the
Wheels from sliding farther on the
Spindle, and you must leave substance of Iron enough to Forge the
Nut of the
Worm-wheel near the other end. But in this, and indeed in all other Forging remember (as I told you
Numb. I.
fol. 9) that it behoves you to
Hammer or
Forge your Work as true as you can, least it cost you great pains at the
Vice.
[Page 44]Then Forge the
Worm-spindle, which is all the way round and straight, unless you will have Moldings for Ornaments (as aforesaid) upon the
Shank of it: But you must be sure to Forge substance enough for the
Worm to be cut out of it.
The
Main and
Worm-wheels are Forg'd round and flat.
The manner of Forging these Wheels (which in Smith's Language is,
Turning up the Wheels) is, first, to draw out a square Rod (as you were taught
Numb. I.
fol. 9. among the several
Heats of Iron) somewhat thicker than you intend your
Wheel shall be; but it must be almost as thin on one side, as you intend the inner edge of the
Wheel shall be, and the opposite to it above twice that thickness, for the outer edge of the
Wheel: the reason you will find by and by. Having drawn from your square Rod a convenient length,
viz. almost three times the Diameter of your intended Wheel, you must take almost a
Flame-heat, and Hammer all along the whole length upon the thick edge, so will you find the long Rod by this Hammering, turn by degrees rounder and rounder in, upon the thin edge, which you Hammer'd not upon, till it become a Circle, or pretty near a Circle. But you must make it somewhat more than a Circle, for the ends must lap over one another, that they may be
welded upon one another.
Thus you may see the Reason for making the outer edge of the Rod thick, and the opposite Edge thin; for your Hammering upon the outer edge only, and not on the inner, makes the outer edge a great deal thinner, and at the same time makes the Wheel broader.
[Page 45]The Reason why I told you, you should draw fourth the Rod to almost three times the Diameter of the Wheel, and not to the Geometrical proportion; is, because that in Hammering upon it to make it round, the Rod will stretch so considerably, that it will be long enough to make a
Wheel of your intended Diameter, and most commonly somewhat to spare. But to return.
Before you take a
welding Heat, as by
Numb. I.
fol. 9, 10. you must flatten the two ends that are to be
welded together, to a little more than half their thickness, that when they are lapt over one another, and
welded together, they may be no thicker than the other part of the
Wheel.
If the
Wheel be not
turned up so round, that with a little labour you may mend them at the
Vice; you must with
Blood red Heats Hammer them round upon the
Pike or
Bickern of the
Anvel, holding with your
Tongs the inner edge of the
Wheel upon it, and Hammering upon the outer edge of the
Wheel, till the
Wheel be fit for the
Vice: Their insides must be divided into four equal Parts or four
cDufftail notches to be fil'd into them. The
Dufftail notches are cut in the inner edge of the
Wheel, somewhat more than a quarter of an Inch deep, and spreading somewhat wider towards the outer edge. The notches are to receive the four ends of a
Cross Forg
[...]d somewhat thicker towards the ends than the thickness of the
Wheel, and must be filed outer
Dufftails, to let exactly into the inner
Dufftail notches made in the inside of the
Wheel. They must be Forg'd thicker than the
Wheel, because they must batter over both the flat sides of the
Wheel, to keep the
Wheel strong and steady upon the
Cross; and sometimes (for more security) they are
brazed into the
Wheel (yet that is but seldom) the middle of this
Cross[Page 46] is made broad, that when the square of the
Spindle, it may have strength enough to bear the violence offered at, as well in winding up the great weight, that keeps the
Wheels in motion, as in the checking and turning the
Jack-winder back, to set the
Jack a going, when by the winding up, it may be subject to stand still, or sometimes, for want of weight▪ or else for want of Oiling or some other accident.
These
Wheels thus Forg'd and Filed flat, must be divided, the
main Wheel commonly into 64 equal parts, and the
worm Wheel into 32 equal parts; but these Numbers are not exactly observ'd by Smiths, for sometimes they make them more and sometimes less, either according to the size of their
Wheels, or according as they intend their
Wheels shall go, swifter or slower about (for the fewer the
Teeth on a
Wheel are, the sooner a
Wheel goes about and the more
Teeth on a
Wheel, the slower the
Wheel goes about) or sometimes as they have open'd their Compasses to divide them: For if by luck, they at first open their Compasses to such a width, as will just measure out on a Circle, (which they describe on the Center of the
Wheel for that purpose) their intended number, than the
Wheel shall have the intended Number of
Teeth; if not, let it somewhat fall short, or exceed that Number, they matter not, but make that Number of
Teeth on the
Wheel. And having thus divided the
Wheel, they by the side of a straight Ruler laid to the Center, and every division markt on the
Wheel, draw or scratch a straight line from the outer limb of the
Wheels, to the Circle, which Circle (I should have told you before) is describ'd at that distance from the outer Verge, they intend the
Teeth shall be cut down to. This is indeed a rough way of working, but the Office of a
Jack is well enough performed by this rough
[Page 47] Work; and the usual prizes such, as will scarce pay Workmen for better, as they say.
These
Wheels thus divided, must be cut down into these Divisions with a
dJack-file, the
Main-wheel straight thwart the outer Verge, (which to speak Mathematically, makes an Angle of 90 degrees with the flat sides of the
Wheel,) and the
Worm-wheel aslope, making an Angle of about 115 degrees with its sides, that is, an Angle of 25 degrees, with a line drawn straight athwart the outer Edge of the
Wheel, and that
Teeth of the
Worm-wheel may gather themselves into the
Grooves of the
Worm in the
Worm-spindle; the
Worm on the
Worm-spindle running about 65 degrees aslope from this Axis, or Perpendicular of the
Worm-spindle; the notches you make with the File must be so wide, as to contain about twice the thickness of of each
Tooth: Therefore you may observe, that the Number of
Teeth cannot be assign'd, because the Sizes of all
Jack wheels are not of equal Diameters, and the Sizes of the
Teeth must be filed very square and smooth, as the corners taken off, and rounded on both sides towards the middle of the top or end of the
Tooth, which much helps the
Teeth to gather in upon the
Teeth of the
Nut, and the
Worm on the
Worm-spindle.
The
Teeth of the
Wheels being cut down, and the whole
Wheel finish'd, they must be forc'd stiff and hard upon the square of the
Spindle, close up to the Shoulder; which Square being made somewhat longer than the
Cross of the
Wheel is thick, must with a
Cold-Chissel be cut on the top of that Square, to make the Iron that comes through the Square hole of the
Wheel, spread over the
Cross of the
Wheel, and then that spreading must be battered with the
Pen of the Hammer; that it may stand up stiff against the shoulder of the Square, on the other side of the
Wheel; but in
[Page 48] doing this, you must be very careful that the
Spindle stand exactly Perpendicular to the flat sides of your
Wheels; for should the
Spindle lean never so little to one, or the other side of the
Wheel, the the
Wheel when it is moving in the
Jack-frame would not move perpendicular, but wabble towards the
Fore or
Backsides of the
Jack-frame, and perhaps by this irregular motion, before a revolution of the
Wheel be perform'd, it would go off from the length of the
Teeth of the
Nut.
Then file the
Spindle-pins (which are the ends of the
Spindle, that go into the Center-holes of the
Fore and
Backsides of the
Jack-frame) exactly round and fit to their Center-holes, and place them into their proper Center-holes. Then try if the
Wheels are exactly round on their outer edges, and that in turning about, their flat sides wabble not, but in a revolution keep Parallel to the
Fore and
Backsides. The way Smiths use to try them by is, to turn them about by the
Spindle, and holding a piece of Chalk steddy to the outer Limb of the
Wheel, not letting the Point of the Chalk slip forwards or backwards, or towards the right or left Hand▪ for then if the Chalk make a white stroke round the whole
Wheel, and that white stroke lie exactly Parallel to the two outer Edges of the
Wheel, the
Wheel is not only round, but stands also true upon its
Spindle, that is, Perpendicular to the
Spindle, and the
Spindle Perpendicular to the flat of it: But if the Chalk does not touch round the
Wheel, you must file down so much of the outer Verge of the
Wheel, where the Chalk does touch, as will bring down or equalize the Diameter of the
Wheel in that place, to the Diameter of the
Wheel in the place where it does not touch; so you may conclude the
Wheel is round. If the Mark of the Chalk lie not exactly in the middle between the two edges of
[Page 49] the
Wheel, then it is not Perpendicular to the
Spindle, and you must with the Hammer set it right, that is Perpendicular, by forcing the
Wheel over from the side it leans too much to, or else by forcing the
Spindle, which is all one; yet this is an help you ought not to rely upon but in case of necessity; rather be sure your
Wheel and
Spindle stand Perpendicular to one another, before you fasten the
Wheel upon the square of the
Spindle, for by this help the square on the
Spindle will be apt to loosen in the square of the
Wheel, and you will have your
Wheel to now fasten upon the Square of the
Spindle again.
As you try'd the
Wheels with Chalk, so you must try the
Nut, the
Worm and the
Spindle.
The upper part of the
Worm-spindle, must be Fil'd truly round to fit into the
Worm-loop, that it shake not in it, and yet go very easily about, without the least stopping. At the upper end of this round on the
Worm Spindle, you must file a square to sit the square hole of the
Fly upon.
The
Shank of the
Worm-loop and the
Stud of the
Worm-spindle, must stand so far off the left side of the fore side, that the
Teeth of the
Worm-wheel, may fall full into the
Grooves of the
Worm; for so both being cut with the same slope, the slope
Teeth of the
Worm-wheel will gather into the slope
Grooves of the
Spindle, and pressing upon the
Worm, drive about the
Worm-spindle and the
Fly.
The
Fly is made sometimes with two, sometimes with four Arms from the Center, and sometimes the Arms are made longer, sometimes shorter: The more Arms, and also the longer Arms, are to make the
Jack go slower.
There is yet a small matter more of Iron-work about the
Jack, which is the
Tumbler; but it lies in the farther end of the
Barrel, and cannot well
[Page 50] be describ'd without a particular Figure, which therefore I have inserted. As in
Fig. 2. A the
Barrel, B the
Main spindle coming through the
Barrel,a the Center of the
Tumbler moving upon the
Center-pin, which is fasten'd into an Iron-plate behind the
Barrelb The
Coller upon the
Main-spindle, from which proceeds a
Tongue, which passes through a pretty wide hole at
c in the
Tumbler, as far as
cc the
Catch of the Tumbler ▪ The
Tumbler moves as aforesaid, upon the Center hole
a, but receives the
Tongue through it at
c, and passes as far as
e. This
Tongue serves as a
Cheek to the
Tumbler, that it cannot tumble above an Angle of 20 degrees, from the Iron-plate it is fasten'd to; and that the width of its Center-hole, and the width of the
Tongue passes through, and the motion of the
Coller about the
Main-spindle allows it; but were the Center-hole
a, and its
Center-pin fit, and the Hole
c, and the
Tongue that also passes through it also fit, and the
Coller fixt, it could not move at all. But this play is enough for it, to do the purpose it is design'd for. The
Tumbler is so plac
[...]d behind the
Barrel, that while the
Jack line is winding up upon the
Barrel, its round britch passes forwards by all the
Crosses of the
Main-wheel, and the
Point or
Catchd, as then claps it self snug or close to the Iron-plate of the
Barrel: But when the
Barrel is turn'd to the contrary way, the weight of the
Catch in half a revolution of the
Barrel (let the
Tumbler be posited where it will) makes it open and fall from the Iron-plate, and butt against one or other of the
Crosses on the
Main-wheel, and so thrusts the
Main wheel about with the
Barrel.
The
Eye of the
W
[...]nch or
Winder, is forg'd as you were taught to forge the
Pin-hole in the
Cross-garnet, Numb. II.
fol. 18. But that was to be a small round hole, and therefore you were directly
[Page 51] to lay a small round piece of Iron or Wyre, where you intended the Pin hole should be, and lap the other end of your Work over it; but this is to be a wide square hole, therefore you must lay a square piece of Iron of your size, where the
Eye of the
Jack-winch shall be and lap or double the other end over it, and Weld and Work as you were directed. The rest of the
Winch is but common
Forging and
Filing Work, which hath been sufficiently taught already.
The Wood-work belonging to the
Jack ▪ is a
Barrel, a
Spi
[...]-wheel and a
Handing of the Winch; which being
Turners Work, I shall say nothing to, till I come to the Art of
Turning. Only those
Wheels that have more than one
Groove in them, are call
[...]d Two, Three,
&c. Struck-wheels, in Workmens corrupting
[...]anguage; but I suppose, originally two
Stroak, three
Stroak-wheels, &c. from the number of
Grooves that are in them.
The Excellencies of a good
Jack are, 1. That the
Jack-frame be Forg'd and
[...]il
[...]d Square, and conveniently Strong, well set together, and will Screw close and tight up. 2. That the
Wheels be Perpendicularly, and strongly fix'd on the Squares of the
Spindles. 3. That the
Teeth be evenly cut and well smooth'd, and that the
Teeth of the
Worm-wheel fall evenly into the
Groove of the
Worm. 4. That the
Spindle Pins shake not between the
Fore and
Backsides, nor are too big, or too little for their Center holes.
a The
square Bore, is a square Steel Point or Shank well Temper'd, fitted into a square Socket in an Iron
Wimble: It is describ'd,
Fig. 3. Its use is to open a Hole and make it truly round and smooth within; when you use it, you must set the Head against your
[Page 52] Breast, and put the Point of the
square Bore into the Hole you punch'd or would open, and turning the Handle about, you with it turn about the Shank of the
square Bore, whose Edges cut away the Irregularities of the Iron made in the Punching. But you must thrust or lean hard with your Breast against the Head of the
square Bore, that it may cut the faster: And you must be sure to guide the
square Bore truly straight forwards in the Hole, lest the Hole be wrought aslope in the Iron.
b To
open an Hole, is in Smith's Language, to make the Hole wider.
c A
Dufftail, is a Figure made in the form of a Doves-tail, and is us'd by many other Handy-crafts, as well as Smiths, but most especially by Joyners, as I shall shew, when I come to
Joynery.
d A
Jack-file, is a broad File somewhat thin on both Edges, and stronger in the Middle.
The manner of making
Molds to Cast
Leaden-Bullets in.
I Insert the making of
Bullet molds, because there is some sort of Work in them different from what hath yet been taught. The Handles, and the Heads are Forg
[...]d as other Work, but the two concave Hemisphers, are first Punch'd with a round ended
Punch, of the shape and almost of the size you intend the Bullet shall be. They must be Punch'd deep enough at the
Forge with a
blood red heat; then are the Edges of the Chaps Filed flat, first with a common File the common way, but afterwards with an using File as Workmen call it. The using File, is a long and broad File, exactly flat on both its cut sides, having a square Iron handle down out at
[Page 53] one end with an hole in it; but the Handle is not to hold it by when you use it, but the hole in it to go over a pin you hang it upon, when you do not use it. When you use it, you must lay it flat upon the Work bench, with its Handle, from you, and you must take care that it lies solid and steady, lest when you Work upon it, it slip from you; therefore you may strike a Nail in at the hole in the Handle, a little way into the Work bench, that you may draw it again, when you have done with the
using File, you may drive in a small Tack on each side the
using File, to keep it steddy or you may Tack down two small thin boards on either side and rip them off again when you have done. Your
using File lying thus straight and steddy before you, lay the Chaps of one half of the
Mold flat upon the hither end of the
using File, and holding your two Thumbs, and your two Fore-fingers upon the Head of the
Mold, thrust your Work hard down from you the whole length of the
Using-file, then draw your Work lightly back, and thrust it again hard from you; retire these thrusts thus, till upon the Chaps of the
Mold, you can see no irregularities, or the File-stroaks of the common File lest, so may you be sure that the Chaps of the
Mold is truly flat. Do the like by the other half of the
Mold.
Now you must try whether each of these concaves be an exact half-round; thus you may describe an Arch a little more than a Semi-circle, just of the Diameter of the
Bullet, upon the end of a thin piece of Brass-latin, draw a straight Line through the Center, and the Arch on both sides it, for the limits of the Semi-circle; File very curiously all the Brass away on the end, just to this Semi-circle, and just to the Diametral-line,
[Page 54] on either side of the Semi-circle, so have you a convex Semi-circle: Put this convex Semi-circle into the Concave
Molds, if it fits them so as the Convex reaches just the bottom of the
Molds, when its Shoulder touches just the Chaps of the
Mold, they are each a true concave Hemisphere. But if the Shoulder of the Convex (that is, a Diametral-line prolong'd) rides upon the Chaps of the Concave, and the bottom of the Convex touch not the bottom of the Concave, the Concave is Punch'd too deep, and must have its Chaps rubb'd upon the
Using-file again, till it comply with the Convex. Then put into the two Concaves a round
Bullet, that will just fill them both, and pinching the Heads of the
Mold close together in a
Vice, with the
Bullet in it, drill an hole through both the handles of the
Joint. The reason why the
Bullet is put into the
Mold is, because the Chaps of the two Halves should lie exactly upon one another, whilst the hole for the
Joint is drilling. Then fit a Rivet-pin for this hole, and Rivet them together, but not so hard, but that the
Mold may open and shut pretty easie, and yet go true. Then take the
Bullet out, and File in each half of the Head, half a round hole directly against one another for the
aG
[...]a
[...], which two half holes, when the
Mold is shut, will make one round hole.
You may now try with Clay, or by casting a leaden
Bullet in it, whether it be exactly round or no; for making a true round hole in a thin piece of Brass, just of the Circumference of the Chaps, you may try if the
Cast-bullet will just pass thro', and also fill that hole when the
Bullet is turn
[...]d every way; which if it do, you may conclude the
Mold is true. This thin piece of Brass, with a round hold in it, is call'd a
Sizer.
[Page 55]But the inside wants cleansing, for hitherto it is only Punch'd. Therefore you must provide a
bBullet-bore, with which you may bore the inside of each half to clear it. Or if they be not quite deep enough Punch
[...]d, you may bore them deeper. You may bore them severally, or together, by putting the
Bullet-bore into the
Mold, so as the
Shank may come through the
Geat.
In this Section you see, first the use of a
Using-file, an Instrument of great use for a flat Filing; for by it you may make two pieces of Iron of somewhat considerable breadth, so true, that by laying the two flat sides upon each other, they shall draw up one another. It is much used by
Clock-makers, Watch-makers, Letter-mold-makers, and indeed all others that frame Square-work on Iron, Steel or Brass. Secondly, the use of a
Bullet-bore, which though it be seldom us'd, yet it may serve not only for
Bullet-molds, but for other purposes; and by altering its shape into an Oblong, a Cone or Cilinder, you may bore these hollow Figures either for
Molds, or some other accidental Uses.
a A
Great, is the hole through which the Mettal runs into the
mold. The Word is us'd by most
Founders.
b The
Bullet-bore, is a
Shank of Steel, having a Steel
Globe or
Bullet at one end, just of your intended
Bullet size. This Globular end must be Hatch'd with a fine cut, by a
File-cutter, and Harden'd and Temper'd. The end of the
Shank, this Globular Bore is fastned to, must be round and so small, that when the
Bullet-bore is in the
mold, the
Geat will easily receive it. The other end of the
Shank must be fitted into the square Socket of the
Wimble, and have a Shoulder to it,
[Page 56] to stop the Socket from sliding too far upon the
Shank. From this Shoulder, the rest of the
Shank must run Tapering down, to the small end the
Bullet-bore is fastned to. You must Work with it, as you were taught to Work with the
Square-bore.
Of Twisting of the Iron.
SQuare and flat Bars, sometimes are by Smiths,
Twisted for Ornament. It is very easily done; for after the Bar is Square or flat Forg'd (and if the curiosity of your Work require it truly Fil'd) you must take a
Flame-heat, or if your Work be small, but
Blood-red heat, and you may twist it about, as much or as little as you please, either with the
Tongs, Vice or
Hand-vice, &c.
Of Case-hardning.
CAse-hardning is sometimes us'd by
File-cutters, when they make course
Files for Cheapness, and generally most
Rasps have formerly been made of Iron and
Case-hardned, because it makes the outside of them hard. It is us'd also by
Gun-smiths, for Hardning their Barrels; and it is us'd for
Tobacco-boxes, Cod-piece-buttons, Heads for
Walking-s
[...]aves, &c. And in these Cases, Workmen to set a greater value on them in the Buyers esteem, call them
Steel-barrels, Steel-tobacco-boxes, Steel-buttons, Steel-heads, &c. But Iron thus hardned takes a better Polish and keeps the Polish much longer and better, than if the Iron were not
Case hardned. The manner of
Case-hardning is thus, Take
Cow-horn or
Hoof, dry it thoroughly in an Oven, and then beat it to Powder, put about the same quantity of Bay-Salt to it, and mingle them together with stale Chamberly, or else White-wine-vinegar. Lay some of this mixture upon the Loam, made as you were
[Page 57] taught
Numb. I.
fol. 13. And cover your Iron all over with it; then wrap the Loam about all, and lay it upon the Hearth of the Forge to dry and harden: When it is dry and hard, put it into the Fire and blow up the Coals to it, till the whole Lump have just a
Blood-red-heat, but no higher, lest the quality of your mixture burn away and leave the Iron as soft as at first. Then take it out and quench it: Or, instead of Loam, you may wrap it up in Plate Iron, so as the mixture may touch every part of your Work, and blow the Coals to it, as aforesaid.
Of several sorts of Steel in common use among Smiths.
THE difficulty of getting good Steel makes many Workmen (when by good hap they light on it) commend that Country-Steel for best, from whence that Steel came. Thus I have found some cry up
Flemish-steel, others
Swedish, English, Spanish, Venice, &c. But according to my Observation and common Consent of the most ingenious Workmen, each Country produces almost indifferently good and bad; yet each Country doth not equally produce such Steel, as is fit for every particular purpose, as I shall shew you by and by. But the several sorts of Steel, that are in general use here in
England, are the
English, the
Flemish, the
Swedish, the
Spanish and the
Venice-steel.
The
English-steel is made in several places in
England, as in
Yorkshire, Gloucestershire, Sussex, the
Wild of Kent, &c. But the best is made about the
Forrest of Dean, it breaks Fiery, with somewhat a course Grain But if it be well wrought and proves sound, it makes good Edge-tools, Files and Punches. It will work well at the Forge, and take a good Heat.
[Page 58]The
Flemish-steel is made in
Germany, in the Country of
Stiermark and in the
Land of Luyck: From thence brought to
Colen, and is brought down the River
Rhine to
Dort, and other parts of
Holland and
Flanders, some in
Bars and some in
Gads, and is therefore by us call'd
Flemish-steel, and sometimes
Gad-steel. It is a tough sort of Steel, and the only Steel us'd for Watch-springs. It is also good for Punches; File-cutters also use it to make their Chissels of, with which they cut their Files. It breaks with a fine Grain, works well at the Forge, and will take a welding Heat.
I cannot learn that any Steel comes from
Sweden, but from
Dantzick comes some which is call'd
Swedish-steel: It is much of the same Quality and Finess with
Flemish-steel.
The
Spanish-steel is made about
Biscay. It is a fine sort of Steel, but some of it is very difficult to work at the Forge, because it will not take a good Heat; and it sometimes proves very unsound, as not being well
curried, that is well wrought. It is too quick (as Workmen call it) that is, too brittle for Springs or Punches, but makes good fine Edg'd-tools.
Venice-steel is much like
Spanish steel, but much finer, and Works somewhat better at the Forge. It is us'd for Razors, Chirurgion's Instruments, Gravers,
&c. Because it will come to a fine and thin Edge. Razor makers generally clap a small Bar of
Venice-steel between two small Bars of
Flemish-steel, and so Work or Weld them together, to strengthen the back of the Razor, and keep it from cracking
[Page 59]There is another sort of Steel, of higher commendations than any of the forgoing sorts: It is call'd
Damascus-steel; 'tis very rare that any comes into
England unwrought, but the
Turkish-Cymeters are generally made of it. It is most difficult of any Steel to Work at the Forge, for you shall scarce be able to strike upon a Blood-heat, but it will
Red-sear; insomuch that these
Cymeters are, by many Workmen, thought to be cast Steel. But when it is wrought, it takes the finest and keeps the strongest Edge of any other Steel. Workmen set almost an inestimable value upon it to make Punches, Cold-punches,
&c. of. We cannot learn where it is made, and yet as I am inform'd, the Honourable Mr.
Boyl hath been very careful and industrious in that enquiry; giving it in particular charge to some Travellers to
Damascus, to bring home an Account of it: But when they came thither they heard of none made there, but were sent about 50 Miles into the Country and then they were told about 50 Miles farther than that: So that no certain Account could be gain'd where it is made.
Kirman towards the Ocean affords very fine Steel, of which they make Weapons highly priz'd; for a
Cymeter of that Steel, will cut through an Helmet with an easie blow.
Geog. Rect. fol. 279.
The Rule to know good Steel by.
BReak a little piece of the end of the Rod, and observe how it breaks; for good Steel breaks short of all Gray, like frost work Silver. But in the breaking of the bad you will find some veins of Iron shining and doubling in the Steel.
HAving chose your Steel and forg'd it to your intended shape, if you are either to File Engrave or to Punch upon it, you ought to Neal it first, because it will make it softer and consequently work easier. The common way is to give it a
Blood-red-heat in the Fire, then take it out, and let it cool of it self.
There are some pretenders to know how to make Steel as soft as Lead; but so oft as my Curiosity has prompted me to try their pretended Processes, so oft have they fail'd me; and not only me, but some others, careful Observers. But the way they most boast of, is the often heating the Iron or Steel in red-hot Lead, and letting it cool of it self with the Lead. I have many times try'd this without any other success, than that it does make Iron or Steel as soft as if it were well Neal'd the common way, but no softer: And could it be otherwise, the small Iron Ladles, that Letter-founders use to the casting of Printing
[...]Letters, would be very soft indeed; for their Iron Ladles are kept constantly Month after Month in melting Mettal, whereof the main Body is Lead, and when they cast small Letters, they keep their Mettal red-hot; and I have known them many times left in the Mettal and cool with it, as the Fire has gone out of it self; but yet the Iron Ladles have been no softer, than if they had been well Neal
[...]d the common way. But perhaps these Pretenders mean the Iron or Steel shall be as soft as Lead, when the Iron or Steel is red-hot; if so, we may thank them for nothing.
[Page 61]But that which makes Steel a very small matter softer than the common way of Nealing is, by covering Steel with a course Powder of Cow-Horns, or Hoofs, or Rams-Horns, and so inclosing it in a Loam: Then put the whole Lump into a Wooden Fire to heat red-hot and let it lie in the Fire till the Fire go out of it self, and the Steel cool with the Fire.
Of Hardning and Tempering Steel.
ENglish, Flemish and
Swedish-steel, must have a pretty high heat given them, and then suddenly quench in Water to make them very hard; but
Spanish and
Venice-steel will need but a Blood-red-heat, and then when they are quench
[...]d in Water, will be very hard. If your Steel be too hard, that is to brittle, and it be an edg'd or pointed Instrument you make, the edge or point will be very subject to break; or if it be a Spring, it will not bow, but with the least bending it will snap assunder: Therefore you must
let it down (as Smiths say) that is, make it softer, by
tempering it. The manner is thus, take a piece of Grin-stone or Whet-stone and rub hard upon your Work to take the black Scurf off it, and brighten it; then let it heat in the Fire, and as it grows hotter you will see the Colour change by degrees, coming to a light goldish Colour, then to a dark goldish Colour, and at last to a blew Colour; choose which of these Colours your Work requires, and then quench it suddenly in Water. The light goldish Colour is for Files, Cold-chissels and Punches, that Punch into Iron and Steel: The dark goldish Colour for Punches to use on Brass, and generally for most Edge-tools: The blew Colour gives the Temper to Springs in general, and is also us'd to Beautifie both Iron and Steel; but then Workmen sometimes
[Page 62] grind
Indico and
Sallad-oyl together, and rub that mixture upon it, with a woollen Rag, while it is heating, and let it cool of it self.
There is another sort of
Hardning, call'd
Hammer-hardning. It is most us'd on Iron or Steel Plates, for
Dripping pans, Saws, Straight-Rulers, &c. It is perform'd only, with well Hammering of the Plates, which both smooths them, and beats the Mettal firmer into its own Body, and somewhat hardens it.
The manner of Forging Steel, either for Edge-tools, Punches, Springs,
&c. Is (the several shapes consider'd) the same with forging Iron: Only this general Rule observe, from an old
English Verse us'd among Smiths, when they Forge Edge-tools,
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works The Art of
JOINERY.
Definition.
JOINERY, is an Art Manual, whereby several Pieces of Wood are so fitted and join'd together by
Straight-line, Squares, Miters or any
Bevel, that they shall seem one intire Piece.
Explanation.
By
Straight-Lines I mean that which in Joyner's Language is call'd a Joint, That is, two Pieces of Wood are Shot (that is Plained,) or else they are Pared, that is, the irregularities that hinder the closing of the two Pieces are cut off with a Pairing-chissel. They are Shot or Pared (as I said) so exactly straight, that when they are set upon one another, light shall not be discern'd betwixt them. This they call Shooting of a Joint, or Paring to a Joint, because these two Pieces are with Glew commonly join'd together, either to make a Board broad enough for their purpose, or to
a Clamp one piece of Wood to the end of another piece of Wood to keep it from Casting or Warping.
[Page 64]By
Squares, I mean the making of Frames, either for Door-cases or such like, which is the Framing of two pieces of Wood athwart two other pieces of Wood, so as the four Angles of the Frame may comply with the
Square marked D.
By
Miters are meant the joining of two pieces of Wood, so as the Joint makes half a Square, and does comply with the
Miter-square marked E.
By a
Bevel is meant any other Angle: As Frames that may be made of
Pentagon, Hexagon, Octagon, &c. Figures.
§ 1. The Names of Joyners Tools describ'd, in Plate
IV.
AA Work-bench.
b The Hook in it, to lay Boards or other
b Stuff flat against, whilst they are
c Trying or Plaining.
c The Bench-Screw (on its hither side) to Screw Boards in, whilst the Edges of them are Plaining or
d Shooting; and then the other edge of the Board is set upon a Pin or Pins (if the Board be so long as to reach the other Leg) put into the Holes marked
aaaaa down the Legs of the Bench; which Pin or Pins may be removed into the higher or lower holes, as the breadth of the Board shall require: So then, the Bench-screw keeps the Board close to the edge of the Bench, and the Pins in the Legs keep it to its height, that it may stand steddy whilst the other edge is working upon: For in the Shooting of a Joint, if the Board keeps not its exact position, but shakes or trembles under the Plain, your Joint will very hardly be truly straight.
d The Hold-fast, let pretty loose into round holes marked
bbbbbb, in the Bench: Its Office is to keep the Work fast upon the Bench, whilst you either Saw, Tennant,
[Page 65] Mortess, or sometimes
Plain upon it,
&c. It performs this Office with the knock of an
Hammer, or
Mallet, upon the
head of it; for the
Beak of it being made crooked downwards, the end of the
Beak falling upon the flat of the
Bench, keeps the
head of the
Hold-fast above the flat of the
Bench, and the
hole in the
Bench the
Shank is let into being bored straight down, and wide enough to let the
Hold-fast play a little, the
head of the
Hold-fast being knockt, the point of the
Beak throws the
Shank a-slope in the
hole in the
Bench, and presses its back-side hard against the edge of the
hole on the upper Superficies of the
Bench, and its fore-side hard against the oppersite side of the under Superf
[...]cies of the
B
[...]nch and so by the point of the
Beak, the
Shank of the
Hold-fast is wedged between the upper edge, and its oppersite edge of the round hole in the
Bench. Sometimes a double
Screw is fixed to the side of the
Bench, as at
g; or sometimes its farther
Cheek is laid an edge upon the flat of the
Bench, and fastned with an
Hold-fast, or, sometimes, two on the
Bench.
e A
Mallet.
§. 2. BBBBBBB
Plains of several Sorts: as,
B 1. A
Fore Plain. a The
T
[...]e. b The
Mouth▪ c The
Wedge d The
[...]r
[...]n. e The
Sole. f The
Fore-end. g The
Britch. fgh The
Stock. All together
A Plane. It is called the
Fore Plane because it is used before you come to work either with the
Smooth Plane, or with the
Joynter. The edge of its
Iron is not ground upon the straight, as the
Smooth Plane, and the
Joynter are, but rises with a Convex-Arch in the middle of it; for its Office being to prepare the Stuff for either the
Smo
[...]thing Plane, or the
Joynter, Workmen set the edge of it
cRanker than the edge either of the
Smoothing Plane, or the
Joynter; and should the
Iron of the
Plane be ground to a straight edge,
[Page 66] and it be set never so little
Ranker on one end of the edge than on the other, the
Ranker end would (bearing as then upon a point) in working, dig Gutters on the Surface of the
Stuff; but this
Iron (being ground to a Convex-Arch) though it should be set a little
Ranker on one end of its edge than on the other, would not make Gutters on the Surface of the
Stuff, but (at the most) little hollow dawks on the
Stuff, and that more or less, according as the
Plane is ground more or less Arching. Nor is it the Office of this
Plane to smooth the
Stuff, but only (as I said) to prepare it, that is, to take off the irregular Risings, whether on the sides, or in the middle, and therefore it is set somewhat
Ranker, that it may take the Irregularities the sooner off the
Stuff, that the
Smoothing Plane, or the
Joynter, may afterwards the easier work it
Try. The manner of
Trying shall be taught, when I come to Treat of the use of the
Rule.
You must note, that as I told you in
Smithing, Num. I.
fol. 14, 15, 16. it was the Office of the
course tooth'd File to take off the prominent Irregularities the
Hammer made in the
Forging, &c. and that you were not to
file them more away than you need, so the same Caution is to be given you in the using of this
fore Plane in
Joynery, for the reason there alledged in
Smithing, whether, to avoid Repetition, I refer you; only with this Consideration, that there
Iron, or
Steel, was the matter wrought upon, and there a
course File the
Tool ▪ but now
Wood is the matter, and a
Course, or
Fore-Plane, the
Tool.
§. 3 Of
setting the
Iron.
WHen you
set the
Iron of the
Fore-Plane, consider the
Stuff you are to work upon,
viz. Whether it be
hard or
soft, or
Curling, as
Joyners[Page 67] call
Cross grain'd Stuff: If it be
hard or
curling, you must not
set the
Iron veay
rank, because a Man
[...]s strength will not cut deep into hard
Wood; and if it be not hard
Wood, but
curling, or
knotty, and the
Iron Rank-set, you may indeed work with it till you come to some
Knot, or
Curl, but then you may either tear your
Stuff, or break the edge of your
Iron; therefore you may perceive a reason to
set the
Iron fine for
curling, and
knotty Stuff.
But if you ask me how
rank your
Iron ought to be set? I answer, If your Wood be
soft, and your
Stuff free, and
frowy, that is, evenly temper'd all the way, you may
set the
Iron to take a shaving off the thickness of an old coined Shilling, but scarce thicker; whereas, if your
Stuff be
hard, or
curling, or
knotty, you shall scarce be able to take a shaving off the thickness of an old Groat. Therefore you must examine the Temper of your
Stuff, by easy Trials, how the
Plane will work upon it, and
set your
Iron accordingly. And observe this as a General Rule, that the
Iron of the
Fore-Plane is, for the first working with it, to be
set as
rank as you can make good work with; and that for speed sake.
If your
Iron be
set too
rank, knock with an
Hammer upon the
Britch of the
Stock, and afterwards upon the
Wedge; for this knocking upon the
Britch, if you knock hard enough, 'twill raise the
Iron a little, and
set it
fine; if you knock not hard enough, you must knock again, till the
Iron do rise; but if you knock too hard, it will raise the
Iron so much, that its edge will rise above the
Sole into the
Mouth of the
Stock, and consequently not touch the
Stuff ▪ Therefore you must knock softly at first, till, by trials, you find the
Iron rises to a convenient
fineness. But as this knocking on the
Britch raises the
Iron, so it also raises and loosens the
Wedge; therefore (as aforesaid) whenever
[Page 68] you knock upon the
Britch, you must also knock upon the
Wedge, to soften the
Iron again.
If you have raised the edge of the
Iron too
fine, you must knock softly upon the head of the
Iron, and then again upon the
W
[...]dge, and this you may sometimes do several times, till you fit your
Iron to a convenient
fineness.
When you have occasion to take your
Iron out of the
Stock to
rub it, that is, to
whet it, you may knock pretty smart Blows upon the
Stock, between the
Mouth and the
Fore-end, to loosen the
Wedge, and consequently the
Iron.
These ways of
setting, are used to all other
Planes, as well as
Fore-planes.
In the using of this, and indeed, all other
Planes, you must begin at the hinder end of the
Stuff, the Grain of the Wood lying along the length of the
B
[...]ch, and Plane forward, till you come to the fore-end, unless the
Stuff proves
Cros
[...]-grain'd, in any part of its length; for then you must turn your
Stuff to Plane it the contrary way, so far as it runs
Cros
[...]-grain'd, and in Planeing, you must at once, lean pretty hard upon the
Plane, and also thrust it very hard forwards, not letting the
Plane totter to, or from you-ward
[...], till you have made a Stroak the whole length of the
Stuff. And this sometimes, if your
Stuff belong, will require your making two or three steps forwards, e
[...]er you come to the fore-end of the
Stuff: But if it do, you must come back, and begin again at the farther end, by the side of the last plan'd Stroak, and so continue your several lays of Planeing, till the whole upside of the
Stuff be planed.
And if the
Stuff be broad you are to Plane upon, and it
warp a little with the
Gra
[...]n, or be any ways crooked in the breadth, you must then turn the
Gra
[...]n athwart the
Work-bench, and Plane upon
[Page]
[figure]
[Page 69] the
Cross-grain. For, if your work be hollow in the middle, you must Plane both the Bearing sides thinner, till they come to a
Try with the middle. Then turn the other side of your work, and working still
Cross-grain'd, work away the middle, till it come
Try with the two sides.
This way of
Cross-grain'd working, is, by Workmen, called
Traversing.
Thus have you, in general, the use of all the other
Planes: But the use of those Planes, that are designed for other particular purposes, I shall shew, as they come in Order.
§. 4. Of the
Joynter. B. 2.
THe
Joynter is made somewhat longer than the
Fore-plane, and hath its
Sole perfectly straight from end to end. Its Office is to follow the
Fore-plane, and to
[...] an edge perfectly straight, and not only an edge, but also a Board of any thickness; especially when
[...] is to be
shot. Therefore the Hand must be carried along the whole len
[...]th, with an
[...] weight, and so exactly
[...] to the edges of the Board▪
[...] of the
Plane encline either inward or
[...] that the whole breadth be
[...] both i
[...] sides; supposing
[...] s
[...]des
[...] will two edges of two Boards, when
[...] [...] actly flat and square upon one another, th
[...]t light will not be discerned betwixt them
[...] is counted a piece of good Workmanship
[...]Joyner, to have the Craft of bearing his
[...] curiously even, the whole length of a long
[...] and yet it i
[...] but a sleight to those, Practic
[...] [...] [...]ur'd the Hand to. The
Joynter is also used to
Try Tables with, (large or small) or other such broad Work; and then
Joyners work, as well upon the
Traverse with it, as with the Grain of the
[Page 70] Wood, and also Angularly, or Corner-wise, that they may be the more assur'd of the flatness of their Work.
Its
Iron must be
set very
fine, so fine, that when you wink with one Eye, and set that end the straight side of the
Iron is next to the other Eye, there appears a little above an hairs breadth of the edge above the Superficies of the
sole of the
Plane, and the length of the edge must lie perfectly straight with the flat breadth of the
sole of the
Plane: For the
Iron being then well wedg'd up, and you working with the
Plane thus
set, have the greater assurance that the
Iron cannot run too deep into the
Stuff, and consequently you have the less danger that the
Joynt is wrought out of straight.
§. 5. The Use of the
Strike-block.
THe
Strike-block marked B 3. is a
Plane shorter than the
Joynter, having its
sole made exactly flat, and straight, and is used for the
shooting of a short
Joynt; because it is more handy than the long
Joynter. It is also used for the framing, and fitting the Joynts of
Miters and
Bevels; but then it is used in a different manner from other
Planes: For if the
Miter and
Bevel you are to fit be small, you must hold it very steddy in your left hand, with the
sole of it upwards, and its fore-end towards your right hand: and you must hold your work in your right hand very steddy: Then apply the sawn
Miter, or sawn
Bevel at the end of your
Stuff, to the fore-end of the
Strike-block, and so thrust it hard and upright forwards, till it pass over the edge of the
Iron, so shall the edge of the
Iron, with several of these thrusts continued, cut, or plane off your
stuff the roughness that the
Teeth of your Saw made: But if your work be so big that you cannot well weild
[Page 71] it in your right hand, you must set the end of your work in the
Bench-screw, and Plane upon it with a
smoothing Plane.
§. 6. The Use of the
Smoothing-Plane.
THe
Smoothing-plane marked B 4. must have its
Iron set very
fine, because its Office is to smoothen the work from those Irregularities the
Fore-plane made.
§. 7. The Use of the
Rabbet-Plane.
THe
Rabbet-plane marked B 5. is to cut part of the upper edge of a Board, or other
Stuff, straight, that is, square down into the Board, that the edge of another Board also cut down in the same manner, may fit and join into the Square of the first Board thus cut away: And when two Boards are thus
lapped on the edges over one another; this
lapping over is called
Rabbetting.
The
Rabbet-plane is also sometimes used to strike a
Facia in a piece of
Molding; as shall be shewed in its proper place:
The sides of the
Iron are not inclosed in the
Stock of this
Plane, as the fore-going
Planes are, but the
Iron is full as broad as the
stock is thick, that the very Angles of the edge of the
Iron may not be born off the
Stuff, to hinder the straight and square cutting it down: Nor doth it deliver its shaving at a
Mouth on the top of the
Stock as the other
Planes do: But it hath its
Mouth on the sides of the
Plane, and delivers its shavings there. Its
Iron is commonly about an Inch broad.
§. 8. The Use of the
Plow.
THe
Plow marked B 6. is a narrow
Rabbet-plane, with some Additions to it:
viz. two square
Staves, marked
aa (yet some of them
[Page 72] have the upper edges of them rounded off for the better compliance with the Hand.) These
Staves are let stiff through two square Mortesses in the
Stock, marked
bb They are about seven or eight Inches long, and stand straight and square on the farther side of the
Stock; and these two
Staves have shoulders on the hither side of the
Stock, reaching down to the wooden
sole of the
Plane, (for there is also an
Iron sole belonging to the
Plow.) To the bottom of these two Shoulders is, Rivitted with Iron Rivets, a
Fence (as Workmen call it) which comes close under the
Wooden sole, and its depth reaches below the
Iron sole about half an Inch: Because the
Iron of the Plow is very narrow, and the sides of it towards the bottom are not to be inclosed in the
Stock, for the same reason that was given in the
Rabbet-plane; therefore upon the
Stock is let in, and strongly nailed▪ an Iron Plate of the thickness of the Plow-Iron, for Wood of that breadth will not be strong enough to endure the force the lower end of the Plow-Iron is put to: This Iron-Plate is almost of the same thickness that the breadth of a Plow-Iron is. Joyners have several
Plows, for several widths of
Grooves.
The Office of the
Plow is, to plow a narrow square
Groove on the edge of a Board; which is thus perform'd. The Board is set an edge with one end in the
Bench-screw ▪ and its other edge upon a Pin, or Pins, put into a Hole, or Holes in the Leg, or Legs of the Bench▪ such an Hole, or Holes, as will, most conveniently for height, sit the breadth of the Board: Then the
Fence of the
Plow is set to that Distance off the Iron-Plate of the Plow, that you intend the
Groove shall lie off the edge of the Board: As if you would have the
Groove lie half an Inch off the Board, then the two
staves must, with the
Mallet, be knocked
[Page 73] through the Mortesses in the
Stock, till the
Fence stands half an Inch off the Iron-Plate; and if the
Staves are fitted stiff enough in the Mortess of the
Stock, it will keep at that Distance whilst you Plow the
Groove: For the
Fence (lying lower than the
Iron of the
Plane) when you set the
Iron of the
Plow upon the edge of the Board, will lie flat against the farther edge of the Board, and so keep the
Iron of the
Plow all the length of the Board at the same Distance, from the edge of the Board that the
Iron of the
Plow hath from the
Fence. Therefore your
Plow being thus fitted, plow the
Groove as you work with other
Planes, only as you laid hold on the
Stock of other
Planes when you use them, now you must lay hold of the two
staves and their
shoulders, and so thrust your Plow forwards, till your
Groove be made to your depth.
If the
Staves go not stiff enough in the Mortess of the Stock, you must stiffen them, by knocking a little wooden Wedge between the Staves and their Mortesses.
§. 9. Of
Molding-Planes·
THere are several other
Planes in use amongst Joyners, called
Molding-planes; as, the
Round, the
Hollow, the
Ogee, the
Snipes-bill, the
Rabbet-plane, the
Grooving-plane, &c. And of these they have several sorts,
viz. from half a quarter of an Inch, to an Inch and a half. They are used as other
Planes are. In the Planeing of Stuff, you must use
Planes whose
Irons have different Mountings; and that according to the hardness, or softness of the Wood, you are to work upon: For if the Wood be hard, the
Iron must stand more upright than it need do, if the Wood be soft: For soft Wood, as
Deal, Pear-tree, Maple, &c. The
Iron is set to make an Angle of 45 Degrees,
[Page 74] with the
Sole of the
Plane: But if it be very hard Wood you are to Plane upon, as
Box, Ebony, Lignum Vitae, &c. It is set to 80 Degrees, and sometimes quite upright: So that these hard Woods, are, indeed, more properly said to be Scraped, than Planed.
But before you come to use your
Planes, you must know how to grind, and whet them, for they are not so fitted when they are bought, but every Workman accomodates them to this purpose, as if it be an hard Wood he is to work on, he grinds his
Basil to a more obtuse Angle, than he would do for soft Wood.
The
Basil, or Angle, an Iron is ground to, to work on soft Wood is about 12 Degrees, and for hard Wood about 18, or 20 Degrees. Where note, That the more acute, or thinner the
Basil is, the better and smoother the
Iron cuts; and the more obtuse and thicker, the stronger the Edge is to work upon hard Work.
§. 10. Of Grinding and Whetting the Iron, and other
Edge-Tools.
WHen you grind your
Iron, place your two Thumbs under the
Iron, and your Fingers of both Hands upon the
Iron, and so clap down your
Iron to the Stone, holding it to that Angle with the Stone you intend the
Basil shall have: Keep the
Iron in this Posture, without either mounting, or sinking its ends all the while the
Stone is turning about; and when you lift the
Iron off the
Stone, to see if it be ground to your Mind; if it be not, you must be sure you place the
Iron again in the same Position on the
Stone it had before; for else you will make a double
Basil on your
Iron: But if it be true set on the
Stone, and steddily kept to that Position, your
Basil will be
Hollow, and the smaller your
Grind-stone[Page 75] is, the hollower it will be. You may know when it is well Ground, by the evenness, and entireness of the Edge all the way.
Having ground your
Iron, you must smoothen the edge finer with a good
Whet-stone. Thus, hold the edge of your
Iron upward in your left Hand, and your
[...]het-stone in your
[...]ight, and having first spit upon your Stone to wet it, apply it to the
Basil of your
Iron ▪ in such a Position, that it may bear upon the whole breadth of the
Basil; and so working the
Stone over the
Basil, you will quickly wear the courser grating of the
Grind-stone off the edge on that side: Then turn the flat side of the
Iron, and apply the
Stone flat to it, till you have worn off the course gratings of the
Grind-stone, on that side too.
Joiners often grind their
Irons upon a flat
Grind-stone also: And then they hold the
Iron also in their Hands, in the same Posture as if it were to be ground on the
Round Grind-stone: Yet then instead of keeping the
Iron on one place of the
Stone, they thrust it hard straight forwards, almost the length of the
Stone, and draw it lightlier straight back again, keeping it all the while at the same Angle with the Superficies of the
Stone; and then smoothen its edge with the
Whet-stone, as if it had been ground upon the round
Grind-stone. And this they do so often, till they have rubbed the hollowness of the
Basil to a flat, and then they grind it again upon the round
Grind-stone.
This Order and Manner of
Setting, Grinding and
Smoothing a
Basil and
Edge, is also used in all other
Edge-tools Joiners use.
§. 10. Of
Chissels of several Sorts. And first of
Formers.
FOrmers marked C 1. C 3. are of several sizes▪ They are called
Formers, because they are used before the
paring Chissel, even as the
fore Plane is used before the
smoothing Plane. The
Stuff you are to work upon being first scribed, (as I shall shew in its proper place) you must set the edge of the
Former, a little without the scribed Stroak. with its
Basil outwards, that it may break, and shoulder off the Chips from your Work, as the Edge cuts it. And you must bea
[...] the
Helve of the
Former a little inwards over the
Stuff, that the
Former do not at first cut straight down, but a little outwards: For, should you venture to cut straight down at the first, you might with a negligent, or unluckly knock with the
Mallet, drive the edge of the
Former under the work. and so cut, before you are aware, more off the under side than the upper side of your Work, and so (perchance) spoil it. Therefore you may make several Cutting
[...] to cut it straight down by little and little,
[...] your Work is made ready for the
paring Chi
[...]sel. When it is used, the
Helve of it is kno
[...] upon with a
Mallet, to drive the edge into
[...]Stuff.
§. 11. Of the
Paring-Chissel.
THe
Paring-Chissel marked C 2. must have
[...] very fine and smooth edge: Its Offic
[...] to follow the
Former, and to
pare off, and
smoothe
[...], the Irregularities the
Former made.
It is not knockt upon with the
Mallet, but the Blade is clasped upon the out-side of the hi
[...]dermost Joints of the fore and little Finger
[...] ▪ by the clutched inside of the middle and
[...][Page 77] Fingers of the right Hand, and so its edge being set upon the
scribed line, and the top of the
Helve placed against the hollow of the inside of the right shoulder, with pressing the shoulder hard upon the
Helve, the edge cuts and pares away the Irregularities.
This way of handling, may seem a Preposterous Posture to manage an Iron Tool in, and yet the reason of the Original Contriver of this Posture is to be approved; For, should Workmen hold the
Blade of the
Paring-Chissel in their whole Hand, they must either hold their Hand pretty near the
Helve, where they cannot well manage the
Tool, or they must hold it pretty near the edge, where the outside of the Fingers will hide the
scribed line they are to
pare in. But this Posture, all Workmen are at first taught, and Practice doth so inure them to it, that if they would, they could not well leave it.
§. 12. Of the
Skew-Former.
THe
Skew-Former marked C 4. is seldom used by Joiners, but for cleansing acute Angles, with its acute Angle on its edge, where the Angles of other
Chissels will not so well come.
§. 13. Of the
Mortess-Chissel.
THe
Mortess Chissel marked C 5. is a narrow
Chissel, but hath its
Blade much thicker, and consequently stronger (that it may endure the heavier blows with the
Mallet) than other
Chi
[...] sels have, so that in grinding it to an edge, it is around to a very broad
Basil as you may see in the Figure. Its Office is to cut deep square holes, called
Mortesses, in a piece of Wood. Joiners use them of several Breadths according as the Breadths of their
Mortesses may require.
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works Continued in the Art of
JOINERY.
§. 15: Of the
Square, and its Vse.
THE
Square, marked D, is two adjunct Sides of a Geometrical Square.
a The
Handle. b The
Tongue. c The
Outer Square. d The
Inner Square. For Joiner's use, it is made of two pieces of Wood, the one about an Inch thick, and the other about a quarter of an Inch thick: These two pieces are severally shot exactly straight, and have each of their Sides parallel to each of their own Sides. The thick Piece (called the Handle) hath a Mortess in it, as long within a quarter of an Inch, as the thin piece (called the Tongue) is broad, and stifly so wide, as to contain the thickness of the Tongue. The Tongue is fastned into the Mortess of the Handle with Glew and wooden Pins, so as the two outer sides (and then consequently the two inner sides) may stand at right Angles with one another.
The Reason why the Handle is so much thicker than the Tongue, is, because the Handle should on either side become a Fence to the Tongue.
[Page 80] And the reason why the Tongue hath not its whole breadth let into the end of the Handle is, because they may with less care strike a line by the side of a thin than a thick piece: For if instead of holding the Hand upright when they strike a Line, they should hold it never so little inwards, the shank of a Pricker falling against the top edge of the Handle, would throw the Point of a Pricker farther out than a thin Piece would: To avoid which Inconvenience, the Tongue is left about half an Inch out of the end of the Handle.
Another Reason is. That if with often striking the Pricker against the Tongue it becomes ragged, or uneven, they can with less trouble Plane it again when the Stuff is all the way of an equal strength, than they can, if Cross grain'd Shoulders be added to any part of it.
Its use is for the striking of Lines square either to other Lines, or to straight sides, and to try the squareness of their Work by; As if they would strike a Line square to a side they have already shot: They apply the inside of the Handle close to the side shot, and lay the Tongue flat upon the Work, than by the outerside of the Tongue, they draw with a Pricker a straight Line: This is called
Striking, or drawing of a Square. Or, if they would Try the squareness of a Piece of Stuff shot on two adjoining sides, they apply the insides of the Handle and Tongue to the outsides of the Stuff, and if the outsides of the Stuff do all the way agree in Line with the insides of the Square, it is true Square. Or if they would try the inward squareness of Work, they apply the two outsides of the Square to the insides of the Work.
§. 16. The manner of
Plaining and
Trying a piece of Stuff-square.
WE will take, for Example, a Piece of Stuff called a Quarter, which is commonly two Inches thick, four Inches broad, and seven Foot long. To plane this Square, lay one of its broad Sides upon the Bench, with one of its ends shov'd pretty hard into the Teeth of the Bench-hook, that it may lie the steddier. Then with the Fore-Plane, as you were taught, § 2.
Numb. 2. Plane off the roughness the Saw made at the Pit, and work that side of the Quarter as streight in its length and breadth as you can with the Fore-Plane; which you may give a pretty good guess at, if the edge of the Iron have born all the way upon the Work. yet you may try by taking up your Work, and applying one end of it to one Eye, whilst you wink with the other, and observe if any Hollow, or Dawks be in the length; if not, you may conclude it pretty true: For the Work thus held, the Eye will discern pretty nearly. Or, for more certainty, you may apply the edge of the two-foot Rule, or rather a Rule shot the full length of the Quarter to your Work, and if it agree all the way with the Rule, you may conclude it is straight in length. But if you find it not straight, you must still with the Fore-Plane work off those Risings that bear the edge of the Rule off any part of the Stuff: Then try if the Breadth be pretty straight; if it be, (the Dawks the roughness the Fore-plane made excepted) the
[...] office of the Fore-plane is perform'd: If it be not, you must straighten the Breadth as you
[...] Length.
[...] tho' this Quarter be thus plained straight i
[...] length and breadth, yet because the
[...]on of the Fore-plane for it
[...] fast working the St
[...]ff is set
[Page 82] Rank, and therefore makes great Dawks in the Stuff, you must set the Iron of your Fore-plane finer, as you were taught, §. 3.
Numb. 2. and with it then work down even almost to the bottom of those Dawks: then try it again, as before, and if you find it try all the way, you may, with the Jointer, or Smoothing-plane, but rather with the Jointer, go over it again, to work out the irregularities of the fine Fore plane: For the Iron of the Fore-plane being ground to a Rising in the middle, as has been shew'd, §. 2.
Numb. 2. though it be very fine set, will yet leave some Dawks in the Stuff for the Jointer, or Smoothing-plane, to work out. Thus the first side of the Quarter will be finished.
Having thus tryed one side of the Quarter straight and flat, apply the inside of the Handle to it, and if one of the adjoining sides of the Quarter, comply also with the inside of the Tongue all the way, you need only smooth that adjoining side: But if it do not so comply, that is, if it be not square to the first side, which you will know by the riding of the inside of the Tongue upon one of the Edges; or some other part between the Edges, you must, with the Fore-plane Rank-set, plain away that Stuff which bears off the inside of the Tongue from complying all the way with it. But if the Risings be great, you may, for quickness, hew away the Risings with the Hatchet: but then you must have a care you let not the edge of your Hatchet cut too deep into the Stuff, lest you either spoil your Stuff, by making it unsizeable, if it be already small enough; or if it have substance enough, make your self more labour to get out those Hatchet-stroaks with the Plane than you need. Then take off the roughness the Hatchet made with the Fore-plane Rank-set, then fine set, and
[Page 83] last of all with the Jointer, or Smoothing-plane: So is the second side also finished.
To work the third side, set the Oval of the Gage exactly to that width from the Gage, that you intend the Breadth of the Quarter (when wrought) shall have, which, in this our Example, is four Inches, but will be somewhat less, because working it true will diminish the Stuff: Therefore sliding the Oval on the Staff, measure on your Inch-Rule so much less than four Inches, as you think your Stuff diminishes in working: Measure, I say, between the Oval and the Tooth, your size: If, at the first proffer, your Oval stand too far from the Tooth, hold the Oval in your Hand, and knock the Tooth-end of your Staff upon the Work-bench, till it stand near enough: If the Oval stand too near, knock the other end of the Staff upon the Work-bench till it be fit. Then apply the flat of the Oval to the second wrought side of your Stuff, so as the Tooth may reach athwart the breadth of the Stuff upon the first side, and keeping the Oval close against the second side, press the Tooth so hard down, that by drawing the Gage in this posture all along the length of the Quarter, the Tooth may strike a Line. In like manner upon the side opposite to the first,
viz. the fourth side, Gage another line opposite to the first gaged Line, and work your Stuff down to those two gaged Lines on the third side, either with Plaining along, or with Hewing, and afterwards Plaining, as you were taught to work the second side.
To work the fourth side, set the Tooth of the Gage to its exact distance from the Oval,
viz. two Inches wanting so much as you think the Stuff diminish'd in working, and apply the flat of the Oval to each side of the first side, and Gage as before two Lines, one on the second, the other on
[Page 84] the third wrought side. Work your Stuff then down on the fourth side to those two Gage lines, either with Plaining alone, or with Hewing, and afterwards Plaining, as you were taught to work the second side
§. 17. To
Frame two
Quarters Square into one another.
YOU must take care in Mortessing and Tennanting, that as near as you can equallize the strength of the sides of the Mortess to the strength of the Tenant. I do not mean that the Stuff should be of an equal Substance, for that is not equalling strength: But the equalling strength must be considered with respect to the Quality, Position and Substance of the Stuff: As if you were to make a Tennant upon a piece of Fur, and a Mortess to recieve it in a piece of Oak, and the Fur and Oak have both the same size: The Tennant therefore made upon this piece of Fur, must be considerably bigger than a Tennant need be made of Oak, because Fur is much a weaker Wood than Oak, and therefore ought to have greater Substance to equallize the strength of Oak. And for Position, the shorter the Stuff that the Tennant is made on, the less Violence the Tennant is subject to. Besides, it is easier to split Wood with the Grain, than to break Wood cros
[...] the Grain; and therefore the same Wood when posited as a Tennant, is stronger than the same Wood of the same size when posited as a Mortess: for the injury a Mortess is subject to, is spliting with the grain of the Wood, which, without good care, it will often do in working; but the force that must injure a Tennant, must offend it, cross the Grain of the Wood, in which Position it will best indure Violence.
[Page 85]When two pieces of Wood, of the same quality and substance (as in this our Example) are elected to make on the one a Tennant, and in the other a Mortess. If you make the Mortess too wide, the sides of the Mortess will be weaker than the sides that contain the Mortess: And if one be weaker than the other, the weakest will give way to the strongest when an equal Violence is offer'd to both. Therefore you may see a necessity of equallizing the strength of one to the other, as near as you can. But because no Rule is extant to do it by, nor can (for many Considerations, I think,) be made, therefore this equallizing of strength must be referred to the Judgment of the Operator. Now to the Work.
The Mortess to be made is in a Quarter four Inches broad. In this case Workmen make the Mortess an Inch wide, so that an Inch and an half Stuff remains on either side it. Therefore your Stuff being squar'd, as was taught in the last Section, set the Oval of the Gage an Inch and an half off the Tooth, and gage with it, on either side your Stuff, a straight line at that distance from the end you intend the Mortess shall be, then open your Compasses to two Inches, and prick off that distance in one of the Lines, for the length of the Mortess; then lay the inside of the Handle of the Square to one side of the Stuff, and upon both the pricks successively, and with your Pricker draw straight Lines through them by the side of the Tongue, so shall the bounds of your Mortess be struck out on the Quarter. If your Mortess go through the Quarter, draw the same Lines on the opposite side of the Quarter thus, Turn the Quarter, or it. Edge, and apply the inside of the Handle of the Square, to the ends of the former drawn Lines, and by
[Page 86] the side of the Tongue draw two Lines on the edge of the Quarter; then turn the Quarter again with its other broad side upwards, and apply the inside of the Handle of the Square to the ends of the last Lines drawn on the edge, and by the side of the Tongue, draw two Lines on this broad side also. These two Lines (if your Quarter was truly squar'd) shall be exactly opposite to the two Lines drawn on the first broad side of the Quarter for the length of the Mortess: And for the width of the Mortess gage this side also, as you did the first; then for the Tennant, gage on that end of the Quarter you intend the Tennant shall be made, the same Lines you did for the Mortess. And because the Quarter is two Inches thick, prick from the end two Inches, and applying the inside of the Handle of the Square to the side of the Quarter, and the Tongue to that Prick, draw by the side of the Tongue a Line through that side the Quarter; then turn the other sides of the Quarter successively, and draw Lines athwart each side the Quarter, as you were taught to draw the opposite Lines for the Mortress.
Then place the edge of the Inch-Mortess-Chissel with its Basil from you, and the Helve bearing a little towards you, within one half quarter of an Inch of one end of the struck Mortess, and with your Mallet knock hard upon it, till you find the Basil of the Chissel will no longer force the Chips out of the Mortess; then remove the Chissel to the other end of the Mortess, and work, as with the first end, till the Chips will void no longer: Then work away the Stuff between the two Ends, and begin again at one of the Ends, and then at the other, and work deeper into the Mortess, then again between both; and so work deeper by degrees, till you have wrought the
[Page 87] Mortess through, or (if not through) to the intended Depth; then with the Mortess-chissel work nearer the drawn Lines at the ends of the Mortess, (for before you were directed to work but within half a quarter of an Inch of the drawn Lines,) by laying light blows on it, till you have made it fit to pare smooth with a narrow Paring-chissel, and then pare the ends, as you were taught to work with the Paring-chissel: Then with the broad Paring-chissel, pare the sides of the Mortess just to the struck Lines; so is the Mortess finished.
To work the Tennant, lay the other Quarter on edge upon your Work-bench, and fasten it with the
Holdfast, as you were taught Sect. I. Then with the Tennant, saw a little without the Struck-line towards the end: You must not Saw just upon the Struck-line, because the Saw cuts rough: Besides, you must leave some Stuff to pare away smooth to the Struck-line, that the
Stile (that is, the upright Quarter) may make a close Joint with the
Rail (that is) the lower Quarter: Saw therefore right down with the Tennant-Saw, just almost to the gaged Lines for the thickness of the Tennant, and have a care to keep the Blade of the Saw exactly upright. Then turn the opposite Side of the Quarter upwards, and work as you were taught to work the first Side.
Then with the Paring-chissel, pare the Work close to the gaged Lines for the Tennant. Then try how it fits the Mortess: If it be not pared enough away, you must pare it where it bears, that is, sticks. But if you should chance to have made it too little, you have spoiled your Work: Therefore you may see how necessary it is, not to make the Mortess too wide at first, or the Tennant too narrow.
Then with the Piercer pierce two holes through the Sides, or Cheeks of the Mortess, about half an
[Page 88] Inch off either end one. Then knock the Tennant stiff into the Mortess, and set it upright, by applying the Angle of the outer Square, to the Angle the two Quarters make, and with your Pricker, prick round about the insides of the Pierced holes upon the Tennant. Then take the Tennant out again, and Pierce two holes with the same Bit, about the thickness of a Shilling above the Pricked holes on the Tennant, that is, nearer the Sholder of the Tennant, that the Pins you are to drive in, may draw the Sholder of the Tennant the closer to the flat side of the Quarter the Mortess is made in. Then with the Paring-chissel make two Pins somewhat Tapering, full big enough, and setting the two Quarters again square, as before, drive the Pins stiff into the Pierced holes.
If you make another Square, as you did this; and make also a Tennant on each Un-tennanted end of the Stiles, and another Mortess on the top and bottom Rails, you may put them together, and make square Frames of them.
§. 18. Of the
Miter Square. And its Use.
THe Miter Square marked E, hath (as the Square) an Handle marked
a, one Inch thick, and three Inches broad, and a Tongue marked
b, of about the same breadth: The Handle and the Tongue (as the Square) have both their Sides parallel to their own Sides. The Handle (as the Square) hath in the middle of its narrowest Side a Mortess in it, of an equal depth, the whole length of the Handle: Into this Mortess is fitted one end of the Tongue, but the end of the Handle is first Bereld off to make an Angle of 45 Degrees with its inside. This Tongue is (as the Square) Pin'd and Glewed into the Mortese of the Handle.
[Page 89]It is used for striking a Miter-line, as the Square is to strike a Square-line, by applying the inside of the Handle to the outside of the Quarter, or Batten, you are to work upon; and then by striking a Line by the side of the Tongue: For that Line shall be a Miter-line. And if upon two Battens you strike two such Lines, and Saw and Pare them just off in the Lines, when the flats of those two sawn ends are applied to one another, the out and inside of the Battens, will form themselves into the Figure of a Square.
Thus Picture Frames, and looking Glass-frames, are commonly made, as by a more full Example you may see in the next Section.
§. 19. Of the
Bevil.
AS the Square is made to strike an Angle of 90 Degrees, and the Miter an Angle of 45 Degrees, so the Bevil (marked F) having its Tongue movable upon a Center, may be set to strike Angles of any greater, or lesser numbers of Degrees, ac
[...]ording as you open the Tongue wider from, or shut it closer to the Handle. It is used as the Square, and the Miter, and will perform the Offices of them both, though it be not purposely made for either; but for the striking such Bevil-lines, as one part of your work must be cut away to, to make it join with another part of your Work: For Example,
We will propose to make a Frame for a Picture, Looking-glass.
&c. containing eight straight Sides; You may quickly perceive that all the ends of these eight Sides must be cut to Bevils, and what Bevils they must be, you will find if you describe upon a smooth flat Board, a Circle of any bigness, but the larger the better: Divide this Circle into eight equal Parts, and from every point draw a Line to the Center: Draw also straight Lines
[Page 90] from every point to its next Point: Then lay the inside of the Handle of your Bevil exactly upon any one of these straight Lines, so as the Angle made by the inside of the Handle, and the inside of the Tongue, lie exactly at the very Angle made by this straight Line, and the Semi-Diametral Line proceeding from the Center, and move the Tongue nearer, or farther off the Handle, till the inside of the Tongue and the inside of the Handle, lie exactly upon those two Lines, so shall your Bevil be set.
Then having sitted your Pieces to your Scantling, stick your Pricker as near the outward Corner of your Pieces as your Stuff will bear, and apply the inside of your Handle also to the outer sides of your Pieces, and so as the inside of the Tongue may be drawn home to the Pricker. For then Lines drawn on those Pieces by the inside of the Tongue, shall be the Lines the Pieces must be cut in, to make these eight Pieces join evenly together by the sides of each others Bevil: Then with the Strike-block smooth the ends of the Bevils, as you were taught in the Section of the Strike-block.
If you have a Board on the back-side of this Frame, you may Glew the back-sides of these Pieces, piece by piece to the Board; but first you must fit them to an exact Compliance of every Bevil with its Match, and when they are so fitted, drive two Nails close to the outside of every piece, but drive not the Nails deep into the Board, because when the Frame is set, and Glewed, or otherwise fastned, you must draw the Nails out again: For these Nails are only intended to serve for Fences to set, and fit each piece into its proper Place, before the whole Frame is fastned together. And should you not thus Fence them, though by your Eye you might judge you fitted the Bevils
[Page 91] exactly, yet one piece being never so little out of its due Position, would drive the next piece more out, and that the next, till at the last, the last piece would not join, but either be too short, or too long, or stand too much out, or in, or else too open, or too close on the out, or inside.
But if you have no Board on the backside, you must, when you Saw the Bevilling Angles upon the square ends of pieces, not sawn quite through the depth of one end of every piece, but about half way through the depth, or thickness, and then with your Chissel either split, or else pare, the upper side of the square end flat away to the Bevil, and so leave part of the square end of your piece, to lap under the piece it is joined to. For Example,
In Fig. 3. Plate 5.
ab is the square end of the piece, and
bc is the Bevil you work the piece to. Therefore you must work away so much of the thickness of the square end, as is comprehended between
a and
c, so that you will see the Triangle
abc, is to be wrought away half way down the thickness of the Stuff, and so will the Triangle
abc be left for the other half thickness of the Stuff. But that end of the piece marked 1, which joins to the piece marked 2, must, upon its Bevil-stroak, be sawn quite off, and its underside must have the same Triangle wrought into it, just so fit as to receive the Triangle in piece 2, and just so deep, as that when the Triangle on piece 2, is fitted into the Triangle in piece 1, the Superficies of both the pieces may be even with one another. And thus you may lap the ends of every piece into one another.
These Triangles at the ends of the pieces you may Glew into one another, but if you think Glewing alone not strong enough, you may Pierce an hole near the inner edge of the Frame, because the Triangle hath there most Substance of Stuff;
[Page 92] and afterwards Pin it, as you are taught to Pin the Rail and Stile together in Sect. 17.
This way of Lapping over, is sometimes used also for square Miters, or other Angular Frames.
§. 20. Of the
Miter-Box.
THere is another way used by Joiners that make many Frames, to save themselves the labour of Drawing, or striking out of Squares, Miters, and several Bevils upon their Stuff: And this is with a Tool called a
Miter-Box, described in Plate 5. Fig. 2. It is composed of two pieces of Wood, of an Inch thick each, as A the upright piece, B the bottom piece. The Upright piece is nailed upright, fast upon the bottom piece. And this upright piece hath on its upper side the Miter Lines struck with the Miter Square, as
de, on the left hand, and
gh on the right hand: On these two Miter Lines the edge of the Saw is set, and a kerf made straight down the upright piece, as from
de on the left hand to
f, and from
gh on the right hand to
i. In like manner any other Bevil is struck upon the upper side of the upright piece with the Bevil, as
kl on the left hand, and
no on the right. On these two Bevil Lines the edge of the Saw is set, and a kerf made straight down the upright piece, as from
k to
lm, and from
gh to
i. You may make as many Bevils as you please on the upright piece of the Miter Box; Bevils to join Frames of either five, six, seven, eight Sides,
&c. and the manner to make them to any number of Sides, was in part taught in the last Section. For as there you were directed to divide the Circle into eight equal Parts, because eight was the number of Sides, we proposed to make that Frame consist of; So, if for any number of Sides you divide the Circle into the same equal parts, and work as you were there directed, you may find what Bevil
[Page 93] the pieces must have that make a Frame that consists of any number of Sides.
So also for Sawing of any Batten, or other small pieces square: Strike at the Point
a, on the upper side of the upright piece a line straight athwart it, to
b, and Saw straight down the upper piece, to
c.
The manner how these Kerfs are sawn straight down with greatest certainty is, thus, Apply the inside of the Handle of the square to the upper side of the upright piece, so as the Tongue lie close to that end of the Miter, Bevil, or square Line struck through the upper side of the Miter-Box, and with the Pricker strike a Line close by the side of the Tongue, through that side of the upright piece; Turn the Tongue to the other side of the upright piece, and apply the inside of the Handle of the square to the other end of the Miter, Bevil, or Square Line, and with the Pricker strike also a Line close by the side of the Tongue through that side the upright piece. These two Lines struck on either
side of the upright piece, shall be a Line on each side in which the edge of the Saw must run, to saw it straight down.
§. 21. Of the
Gage.
THe
Gage marked G (in
Plate 4) The
Oval b is fitted stiff upon the
Staff c, that it may be set nearer or farther from the
Tooth a. Its Office is to
Gage a Line parallel to any straight side. It is used for
Gaging Tennants, and for
Gaging Stuff to an equal thickness.
When you use it, you must set the
Oval to the intended Distance from the
Tooth: If the Oval stand too near the Tooth, Hold the Oval in your right hand, and knock the hinder end of the Staff upon the Work-bench, till it remove to its just Distance from the Tooth: If it stand too far off the
[Page 94] Tooth, knock the fore end of the Staff (
viz. the Tooth end) till it remove to its just Distance from the Tooth: If the Oval slide not stiff enough upon the Staff, you may stiffen it by striking a wooden Wedge between the Mortess and the Staff: So may you apply the side of the Oval next the Tooth, to the side of any Table, or any other straight side, with the Tooth Gage a Line parallel (or of equal Distance) all the way from that side.
§. 22. Of the
Piercer.
THe
Piercer H, in
Plate 4, hath
a the
Head, b the
Pad, c the
Stock, d the
Bitt. Its Office is so well known, that I need say little to it. Only, you must take care to keep the Bitt straight to the hole you pierce, lest you deform the hole, or break the Bitt.
You ought to be provided with Bitts of several sizes, fitted into so many Padds.
§. 23. Of the
Gimblet.
THe
Gimblet is marked I, in
Plate 4. It hath a Worm at the end of its Bitt. Its Office is to make a round hole in those places of your work where the
Stock of the Piercer by reason of its own Sholder, or a Sholder, or Butting out upon the work will not turn about. Its Handle is held in a clutched hand, and its Bitt twisted stiff into your work. You must have them of several sizes.
§. 24. Of the
Augre.
THe
Augre marked K in
Plate 4, hath
aa the Handle,
b the
Bitt. Its Office is to make great round holes. When you use it, the Stuff you work upon is commonly laid low under you, that you may the easier use your strength upon it: For in twisting the Bitt about by the force of both your
[Page 95] Hands, on each end of the Handle one, it cuts great Chips out of the Stuff. You must bear your strength Perpendicularly straight to the end of the Bitt; as with the Piercer.
§. 25. Of the
Hatchet.
THe
Hatchet marked L, in
Plate 4. Its use is so well known (even to the most un-intelligent) that I need not use many Words on it, yet thus much I will say, Its use is to Hew the Irregularities off such pieces of Stuff which may be sooner Hewn than Sawn.
When the Edge is downwards, and the Handle towards you, the right
side of its Edge must be Ground to a Bevil, so as to make an Angle of about 12 Degrees with the left
side of it: And afterwards set with the Whetstone, as the Irons of Planes,
&c.
§. 26. The Use of the
Saw in general.
IN my former
Exercises, I did not teach you how to chuse the Tools a Smith was to use; Because it is a Smith's Office to make them: And because in those
Exercises I treated of making Iron-work, and Steel-work in general, and the making and excellency of some Tools in particular, which might serve as a general Notion for the Knowledge of all Smith's Workmanship, especially to those that should concern themselves with Smithing: But to those that shall concern themselves with Joinery, and not with Smithing; It will be necessary that I teach them how to chuse their Tools that are made by Smiths, that they may use them with more ease and delight, and make both quicker and nearer Work with them.
All sorts of Saws, for Joiner's Use, are to be sold in most Iron-monger's Shops, but especially in
Foster-lane, London; Chuse those that are made
[Page 96] of Steel, (for some are made of Iron) for Steel of it self is harder and stronger than Iron: You may know the Steel-
Saws from Iron-
Saws thus, The Steel-
Saws are generally ground bright and smooth, and are (the thickness of the Blade considered) stronger than Iron-
Saws: But the Iron-
Saws are only Hammer-hardned, and therefore if they could be so hard, yet they cannot be so smooth, as if the Irregularities of the Hammer were well taken off with the Grindstone: See it be free from flaws, and very well Hammered, and smoothly Ground, (that is, evenly Ground,) you may know if it be well Hammered by the stiff bending of it, and if it be well Ground, (that is, evenly Ground,) it will not bend in one part of it more than in another; for if it do, it is a sign that part were it bends most is, either too much Ground away, or too thin Forged in that place: But if it bend into a regular bow all the way, and be stiff, the Blade is good: It cannot be too stiff, because they are but Hammer-hardned. and therefore often bow when they fall under unskilful Hands, but never break, unless they have been often bowed in that place. The Edge whereon the Teeth are, is always made thicker than the Back, because the Back follows the Edge, and if the Edge should not make a pretty wide Kerf, if the Back do not strike in the Kerf, yet by never so little irregular bearing, or twisting of the Hand awry, it might so stop, as to bow the
Saw; and (as I said before) with often bowing it will break at last. When Workmen light of a good Blade thus qualified, they matter not much whether the Teeth be sharp or deep, or set to their mind: For to make them so, is a Task they take to themselves: And thus they perform it: They wedge the Blade of the
Saw hard into the
Whetting-Block, marked P, in
Plate 4. with the Handle towards
[Page 97] their left Hand, and the end of the
Saw to the right, then with a three-square File they begin at the left hand end, leaning harder upon the side of the File on the right Hand, than on that side to the left Hand; so that they File the upperside of the Tooth of the Saw a-slope towards the right Hand, and the underside of the Tooth a little a-slope towards the left, or, almost downright. Having filed one Tooth thus, all the rest must be so filed. Then with the
Saw-wrest, marked O, in
Plate 4. they
set the Teeth of the Saw: That is, they put one of the Notches marked
aaa of the
Wrest between the first two Teeth on the Blade of the
Saw, and then turn the Handle Horizontally a little about upon the Notch towards the end of the
Saw; and that at once turns the first Tooth somewhat towards you, and the second Tooth from you: Then skipping two Teeth, they again put one of the Notches of the
Wrest between the third and fourth Teeth on the Blade of the
Saw, and then (as before) turn the Handle a little about upon the Notch towards the end of the
Saw, and that turns the third Tooth somewhat towards you, and the fourth somewhat from you: Thus you must skip two Teeth at a time, and turn the
Wrest till all the Teeth of the
Saw are
set. This
Setting of the Teeth of the
Saw (as Workmen call it) is to make the Kerf wide enough for the Back to follow the Edge: And is Set
Ranker for soft, course, cheap Stuff, than for hard, fine, and costly Stuff: For the
Ranker the Tooth is set, the more Stuff is wasted in the Kerf: And besides, if the Stuff be hard it will require greater Labour to tear away a great deal of hard Stuff, than it will do to tear away but a little of the same Stuff.
The
Pit Saw, is Set so Rank for course Stuff, as to make a Kerf of almost a quarter of an Inch, but for fine and costly Stuff they set it finer to save
[Page 98] Stuff. The
Whip-Saw is set somewhat finer than the
Pit-Saw; the
Hand-Saw, and the
Compass-Saw, finer than the
Whip-Saw; but the
Tennant-Saw, Frame-Saw, and the
Bow-Saw, &c. are set fine, and have their Teeth but very little turned over the Sides of their Blades: So that a Kerf made by them, is seldom above half a half quarter of an Inch.
The reason why the Teeth are filed to an Angle, pointing towards the end of the
Saw, and not towards the Handle of the
Saw, or directly straight between the Handle and end of the
Saw, is, Because the
Saw is designed to cut only in its Progress forwards; Man having in that Activity more strength to rid, and Command of his Hands to guide his Work, than he can have in drawing back his
Saw, and therefore when he draws back his
Saw, the Work-man bears it lightly off the unsawn
Stuff; which is an ease to his Labour, and enables him the longer to continue his several Progressions of the
Saw.
Master-Workmen, when they direct any of their Underlins to saw such a piece of Stuff, have several Phrases for the sawing of it: They seldom say
Saw that piece of Stuff; But
Draw the Saw through it; Give that piece of Stuff a Kerf; Lay a Kerf in that piece of Stuff; and sometimes, (but most unproperly,)
Cut, or
Slit that piece of Stuff: For the Saw cannot properly be said to cut, or slit the Stuff; but it rather breaks, or tears away such parts of the Stuff from the whole, as the points of the Teeth prick into, and these parts it so tears away are proportionable to the fineness, or rankness of the setting of the Teeth.
The Excellency of Sawing is, to keep the Kerf exactly in the Line marked out to be sawn, without wriggling on either, or both sides; And straight through the Stuff, as Work-men call it;
[Page 99] that is, in a Geometrical Term, perpendicular through the upper and under side, if your Work require it, as most Work does: But if your Work be to be Sawn upon a Bevil, as some Work sometimes is, then you are to observe that Bevil all the length of the Stuff,
&c.
§. 27. The Use of the
Pit-Saw, marked
M, in Plate 4.
THe
Pit-Saw is not only used by those Workmen that make sawing Timber and Boards their whole Business, but is also for small matters used by Joiners, when what they have to do, may perhaps be as soon done at home, as they can carry or send it to the Sawyers. The manner of their working is both alike, for if it be a Board they would slit off a piece of Timber, or if they would take any Square, Quarter, or Batten,
&c. off, they first set off their Scantlin: For Example, If it be an Inch (or more, or less) they would take off a piece of Stuff, they open the Points of their Compasses to an Inch Measure on their Rule, and so much more as they reckon the Kerf of the
Saw will make, and from on side of their Stuff they set off at either end of the Stuff, the Distance of the points of their Compasses; at this Distance therefore they make with the points of their Compasses a prick at either end of the Stuff; Then with Chalk they whiten a Line, by rubbing the Chalk pretty hard upon it; Then one holds the Line at one end upon the prick made there, and the other strains the Line pretty stiff upon the prick at the other end; then whilst the Line is thus strain'd, one of them between his Finger and Thumb draws the middle of the Line directly upright, to a convenient height (that it may spring hard enough down) and then lets it go again, so that it swiftly applies to its first Position, and strikes so strongly against the Stuff, that the Dust, or Attoms
[Page 100] of the Chalk that were rubbed into the Line, shake out of it, and remain upon the Stuff. And thus also they mark the under side of their Stuff: This is called
Lining of the Stuff: And the Stuff cut into those Lines shall be called
Inch-Stuff, because the Compasses that prickt the Stuff, were opened wider by the width of the Kerf than an Inch Measure upon the Rule: But had the Compasses been opened but an Inch exactly, that piece Sawn off should, in Workmen's Language, have been called
In
[...]h-prickt, thereby giving to understand that it half the breadth of the Kerf thinner than an Inch: And thus they call all other Scantlins 2
Inches, 2 ½
Inches, 3
Inches, &c.
Sawn, or
Pricked.
When two Work-men are not at hand to hold the Line at both ends, he that Lines it, strikes one point of his Compass, or sometimes a Pricker, or a Nail aslope towards that end into the prick set off, and putting the Noose at the end of his Line over his Compasses,
&c. goes to the other end, and strains his Line on that prick, and strikes it as before.
The Stuff being thus lined is fastned with wedges over the
Pit, (if the Joiner be accommodated with a
Pit) if he have none, he makes shift with two high Frames a little more than Man high in its stead, (called
great Trussels) with four Legs, these Legs stand spreading outwards, that they may stand the firmer: Over these two
Trussels the Stuff is laid, and firmly fastned that it shake not. Its outer side from whence the Pricks were set off must be Perpendiculer, which you must try by a Plumb-line, for should the top edge of that side, hang never so little over the bottom edge, or the bottom edge not lie so far out as the top edge, the Scantlin you saw off would not be of an equal thickness on the Top or Bottom: Because
[Page 101] the Saw is to work exactly Perpendicular. Then with the
Pit-Saw they enter the one end of the Stuff, the
Top-man at the Top, and the
Pit-man under him: The
Top-man observing to guide the
Saw exactly in the Line: And withal drawing the
Saw somewhat towards him when the
Saw goes down; and the
Pit-man drawing it with all his strength Perpendicularly down; but not so low that the upper and lower Handles of the
Saw sink below both their Managements: Then bearing the Teeth of the
Saw a little off the Stuff, the
Top-man draws the
Saw up again, and the
Pit-man assists, or eases him in it, and thus they continue sawing on till the
Saw has run through the whole length upon the Stuff. But when the Kerf is made so long, that by the working of the
Saw the pieces of Stuff on either side will shake against one another, and so more, or less, hinder the easie Progress of the
Saw, they drive a Wedge so far in the Kerf as they dare do for fear of splitting the Stuff, and so provide the
Saw freer and easier Passage through the Stuff: This Wedging they continue so oft as they find occasion.
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works Continued in the Art of
JOINERY.
§. 28. The Use of the
Whip-Saw, marked
N in Plate
4.
THE
Whip-Saw is used by Joiners, to saw such greater pieces of Stuff that the
Hand-Saw will not easily reach through; when they use it, the Stuff is laid upon the
Trussel, marked O in
Plate 5. in the Angles of it. Then two Men takes each an Handle of the
Saw; He to whom the Teeth of the
Saw points, drawing to him, and the other thrusting from him: And (as before) the
Saw having run its length, is lifted gently over the Stuff to recover another stroak of the
Saw.
§. 29. The Use of the
Hand-Saw marked
D, the
Frame or
Bow-Saw, the
Tennant-Saw, marked
O in
Plate 4.
THese
Saws are accommodated for a single Man's Use, and cut forward as the other
Saws do. The Office of the Checks made to the
Frame-Saw is, by the twisted Cord and Tongue in the middle, to draw the upper ends of the Cheeks closer together, that the lower end of the Cheeks
[Page]
[figure]
[Page 103] may be drawn the wider asunder, and strain the Blade of the
Saw the straighter. The
Tennant-Saw, being thin, hath a Back to keep it from bending.
§. 30. The Use of the
Compass-Saw, marked
Q in Plate
4.
THe
Compass-Saw should not have its Teeth
Set, as other
Saws have; but the edge of it should be made so broad, and the back so thin, that it may easily follow the broad edge, without having its Teeth
Set; for if the Teeth be
Set, the Blade must be thin, or else the Teeth will not bow over the Blade, and if it be thin, (considering the Blade is so narrow) it will not be strong enough to abide
[...]ough Work, but at never so little an irregular thrust, will bow, and at last break; yet for cheapness, they are many times made so thin that the Teeth require a setting. Its Office is to cut a round, or any other Compass kerf; and therefore the edge must be made broad, and the back thin, that the Back may have a wide kerf to turn in.
§. 31. Of the
Rule marked
D in Plate
5.
THe use of the
Rule is to measure Feet, Inches, and parts of Inches, which for that Purpose, are marked upon the flat and smooth sides of the
Rule, and numbred with Inches, and hath every Inch divided into two halfs, and every half into two quarters, and every quarter into two half-quarters; so that every Inch is divided into eight equal parts; And these Inches are numbred from one end of the
Rule to the other; which commonly is in all 24 Inches: Which is a Two-Foot
Rule.
They have commonly both Board and Timber-measure,
&c. marked upon them, for the finding both the superficial and solid Content of Board or
[Page 104] Timber: The use of which Lines and Tables havin been often taught by others, and being more Mathematical than Mechanical, is unproper for me to meddle with in this Place: But rather to refer to those Books.
But the manual Use of it is, either to measure length with it, or to draw a straight Line by the side of it, or to Try the straightness or flatness of their Work with. They Try their Work by applying one of its Edges to the flat of the wrought side of their Work, and bring their Eye as close as they can, to see if they can see light between the edge of the
Rule and their Work: If they cannot, they conclude their Work is
Try, and well wrought.
§. 32. Of the
Compasses marked
E in
Plate 5.
aa THe
Joint, bb the
Cheeks of the Joint,
cc the
Shanks, dd the
Points. Their Office is to describe Circles, and set off Distances from their Rule, or any other Measure, to their Work.
§. 33. Of the
Glew-pot marked
F in
Plate 5.
THe
Glew-pot is commonly made of good thick Lead, that by its Substance it may retain a heat the longer, that the
Glew Chill not (as Work-men say when it cools) when it is to be used.
§. 34. Of
Chusing and
Boiling Glew.
THe clearest, driest, and most transparent Glew is the best: When you boil it, break it with your Hammer into small pieces, and put it into a clean Skillet, or Pipkin, by no means greasie, for that will spoil the Clamminess of the Glew, put to it so much Water as is convenient to dissolve the Glew, and to make it, when it is hot, about the thickness of the White of an Egg:
[Page 105] The quantity of Water cannot be assigned, because of the different Quality there is in Glew: Keep it stirring whilst it is melting, and let it not stick to the sides or bottom of the Vessel: When it is well boiled, pour it into your Glew-pot to use, but let your Glew-pot be very clean. When it is cold, and you would heat it again in your Glew-pot, you must take great care that it burn not to the sides or bottom of the Glew-pot, for that burning either turns to a thick hard skin, or else to a burnt Cinder-like Substance, which if it mingle with the Glew, will spoil it all; because by its Substance it will bear the two Joints you are to Glew together, off each other.
When (with often heating) the Glew grows too thick, you may put more Water to it; but then you must make it very hot, lest the Glew and Water do not wholly incorporate.
Some Joiners will (when their Glew is too thick, put Small-Beer into it, thinking it strengthens it: I have tried it, and could never find it so, but think it makes the Glew weaker, especially if the Small-Bear chance to be new, and its Yest not well settled from it, or so stale, that it be either Draggy, or any whit mingled with the Settlings of the Cask.
§. 35. Of using the
Glew.
YOur Glew must be very warm, for then it is thinnest, and as it chills, it thickens: With a small Brush you must smear the Glew well upon the Joint of each piece you are to Glew together; And before you set them as they are to stand, you must jostle them one upon the other, that the Glew may very well touch and take hold of the Wood; and that the Glew on each Joints may well incorporate. Then fit the two Joints as they must stand; And when you set them by to dry,
[Page 106] let the one stand upright upon the other; For if they stand a-slope, the weight of the Stuff when it leans upon two extream Edges, may make one end of the Joint
Open.
§. 36. Of the
Waving Engine.
THe
Waving Engine discribed in
Plate 5.
Fig. 7. Hath A B a long square Plank, of about seven Inches broad, five Foot long, and an Inch and half thick: All along the length of this Plank, on the middle between the two sides, runs a
Rabbet, as part of it is seen at C: Upon this Rabbet rides a
Block with a
Groove in its under side: This
Block is about three Inches square, and ten Inches long, having near the hinder end of it a wooden Handle going through it, of about one Inch Diameter, as DE: At the Fore-end of this
Block is fastned a Vice, somewhat larger than a great Hand-Vice, as at F: The
Groove in the
Block is made fit to receive the Rabbet on the Plank.
At the farther end of the Plank is erected a square strong piece of Wood, about six Inches high, and five Inches square, as G. This square piece hath a square wide Mortess in it on the Top, as at H. Upon the top of this square piece is a strong square flat Iron Coller, somewhat loosly fitted on, having two Male Screws fitted into two Female Screws, to screw against that part of the wooden Piece un-mortessed at the Top, marked L, that it may draw the Iron Coller hard against the Iron marked Q, and keep it stiff against the fore-side of the un-mortessed Piece, marked L, when the piece Q, is set to its convenient heighth; and on the other side the square wooden Piece is fitted another Iron screw, having to the end of its shank fastned a round Iron Plate which lies within the hollow of this wooden piece, and therefore cannot in Draft be seen in its proper
[Page 107] place; But I have described it a part, as at M. (Fig. 9.) Its Nut is placed at M, on the wooden Piece. On the farther side of the wooden Piece is fitted a wooden Screw called a
Knob, as at N. Through the farther and hither side of the square wooden Piece is fitted a flat Piece of Iron, about three quarters of an Inch broad, and one quarter of an Inch thick, standing on edge upon the Plank; but its upper edge is filed round: (the reason you will find by and by:) Its hither end comes through the wooden Piece, as at O, and its farther end on the opposite side of the wooden Piece.
Upright in the hollow square of the wooden Piece stands an
Iron, as at Q, whose lower end is cut into the form of the Molding you intend your work shall have.
In the fore side of this wooden Piece is a square hole, as at R, called the
Mouth.
To this Engine belongs a thin flat piece of hard Wood, about an Inch and a quarter broad, and as long as the
Rabbet: It is disjunct from the Engine, and in Fig. 8. is marked SS, called the
Rack: It hath its under flat cut into those fashioned Waves you intend your Work shall have: The hollow of these Waves are made to comply with the round edge of flat Plate of Iron marked O (described before) for when one end of the Riglet you wave, is, with the Vice, screwed to the plain side of the Rack, and the other end put through the Mouth of the wooden Piece, as at TT, so as the hollow of the Wave on the under side of the
Rack may lie upon the round edge of the flat Iron Plate set on edge, as at O, and the Iron Q, is strong sitted down upon the Reglet: Then if you lay hold of the Handles of the
Block DE, and strongly draw by them, the Rack and the Riglet will both together slide through the Mouth of the wooden Piece: And as the Rounds of the Rack
[Page 108] rid over the round edge of the flat Iron, the Rack and Reglet will mount up to the Iron Q, and as the Rounds of the Waves on the under side of the Rack slides off the Iron on edge, the Rack and Reglet will sink, and so in a Progression (or more) the Riglet will on its upper side receive the Form of the several Waves on the under side of the Rack, and also the Form, or Molding, that is on the edge of the bottom of the Iron, and so at once the Riglet will be both molded and waved.
But before you draw the Rack through the Engine, you must consider the Office of the Knob N, and the Office of the Iron Screw M; For by them the Rack is screwed evenly under the Iron Q. And you must be careful that the Groove of the Block slip not off the Rabbet on the Plank: For by these Screws, and the Rabbet and Groove, your work will be evenly gaged all the way (as I said before) under the edge of the Iron Q, and keep it from sliding either to the right, or left Hand, as you draw it through the Engine.
§. 37. Of
Wainscoting Rooms.
AAA (in
Plate 7.) The
Stiles. B The
Base. C The
Lower Rail. D The
Sur-Base. EE The
Middle Rail, or
Rails. F The
Friese Rail. G The
Upper Rail. H The
Cornice. I The
Lying Pannel. K The
Large Pannel. L The
Friese Pannel.
In Wainscoting of Rooms there is, for the most part, but two heights of Pannels used; unless the Room to be Wainscoting be above ten foot high, as some are eleven or twelve Foot high, and then three Heighths of Pannels are used: As I The
Lying Pannel, above the
Base. K The
Large Pannel above the
Middle Rail: And L The
Friese Pannel above the
Friese Rail.
The
Friese Rail is to have the same breadth the
Margent of the
Stile hath; The
Middle Rail hath
[Page] commonly two breadths of the
Margent of the
Stile, viz. one breadth above the
Sur-base, and the other below the
Sur-base. And the
Upper and
Lower Rails have also each the same breadth with the
Margent of the
Stile.
Those Moldings above the Prickt Line on the Top, as H, are called the
Cornice.
Sometimes (and especially in low Rooms) there is no
Base or
Sur-base used, and then the
Middle and
Lower Rail need not be so broad: For the
Middle Rail need not be above a third part more than the
Margent of the
Rail: and the
Lower Rail you may make of what breadth you see convenient: They are commonly about three Inches and an half, or four Inches broad, yet this is no Rule: For sometimes Workmen make only a flat Plinth serve.
You may (if you will) adorn the outer edges of the
Stiles and
Rails with a small
Molding: And you may (if you will) Bevil away the outer edges of the
Pannels, and leave a Table in the middle of the Pannel.
An Explanation of
Terms used among Joiners
WHen I first began to Print these Exercises, I marked some Terms in
Joinery with
superiour Letters (as Printers call them) thus
abc &c. intending, at the latter end of these Exercises, to have explained the Terms those Letters referr'd to: But upon consideration that those Terms might often be used in this Discourse, when the Superiour Letter was out of sight, and perhaps its Position (where) forgotten; I have changed my Mind, and left out the Superiour Letters beyond fol. 66. and instead of those References give you this Alphabetical Table of Terms, by which you may always more readily find the Explanation, though you often meet with the Term.
Architrave. See Plate 6.
l. is the
Architrave Molding.
Augre § 24. Plate 4. fig. K.
B.
Base. See Plate 6.
h. And Plate 7. B.
Bead. See Plate 6.
a.
Bed-molding. See Plate 6.
d.
Basil. The
Basil is an Angle the edge of a Tool is ground away to. See fol. 71.
Batten. Is a Scantling of Stuff either two, three or four Inches broad; and is seldom above an Inch thick: and the length unlimmitted.
Beak. The end of the Hold-fast. See fol. 60, 61.
Bench-screw. See Plate 4. A
g. and fol. 60.
Bevil. Any sloping Angle that is not a square, is called a Bevil. See fol. 60. 85. § 19. and Plate 4. F.
Bitt. See § 22.
Bow saw. Plate 4. O.
C.
Capital. See Plate 6.
g.
Cast. Stuff is said to Cast, or Warp, when by its own Droughth or Moisture, or the Droughth or Moisture of the Air, or other Accident, it alters its flatness and straightness
Clamp. When a piece of Board is fitted with the Grain to the end of another piece of Board cross the Grain the first Board is
Clampt. Thus the ends of Tables are commonly
Clampt to preserve them from warping.
Compass-saw. See fol. 9. and Plate 4. fig. R.
Cornice. See Plate 6.
q. and Plate 7. H.
Cross-grain'd-stuff. Stuff is Cross-grain'd when
[...]Bough or some
Branch shoots out on that part of
[Page 111] the Trunk of the Tree; For the
Bough or
Branch shooting forwards, the Grain of that branch shoots forwards also, and so runs a-cross the Grain of the Trunk; and if they be well grown together, it will scarce be perceived in some stuff, but in working; yet in Deal-boards, those Boughs or Branches are Knots, and easily perceiv'd, and if it grew up young with the Trunk, then instead of a Knot you will find a Curling in the
Stuff when it is wrought.
Curling-stuff. If the Bough or Branch that shoots out of the Trunk of a Tree be large, and the stuff in that place sawn somewhat a-slope, when that sttuff comes under the Plane you will find a Turning about or Curling on that place upon the stuff; and in a straight progress of the Plane the Iron will cut with, and suddenly
a-cross the Grain, and that more or less as the Bough grew in the Youth of the Tree, or grew more or less upright, or else sloping to the Trunk, or was sawn so. Such stuff therefore is called
Curling-stuff.
D.
Door-case. Is the Fram'd work about the Door.
Double-Screw. See fol. 60. Plate 4. fig.
g. on the Work-bench A.
F.
Facia. See Plate 6.
h.
Fence. See § 8. Use of the Plow, and Plate 4. fig. B 6.
Fine-set. The Irons of Planes are set Fine, or Rank. They are set Fine, when they stand so shallow below the sole of the Plane, that in working they take off a thin shaving. See § 3.
Margent. See Plate 7. at AAA the flat breadth of the Stiles besides the Moldings, is called the Margent of the Stiles.
Middle Rail. See Plate 7. EE.
Miter. See fol. 64.
Miter Box. See § 20. and Plate 5. fig. 1.
Miter square. See § 18. and Plate 4. E.
Moldings. The several wrought-work made with Planes on Wood, is called
Moldings. See Plate 6.
Molding Planes. See § 9.
Mortess. Is a square hole cut in a piece of stuff, to entertain a Tennant fit to it. See § 17.
Mortess Chissel. See § 13. and Plate 4. C 5.
Mouth. See § 2. B 7.
a The Mouth.
O.
Ogee. See Plate 6.
c.
Oval. See § 21. and Plate 4. G.
b.
Outer Square. See § 15. and Plate 4. D
c.
P.
Pad. See § 22. and Plate 4. H
b.
Pannel. In Plate 7. IKL are Pannels, but distinguished by their Positions.
Pare. The smooth cutting with the Paring-Chissel is called
Paring.
Paring-Chissel. See § 11. and Plate 4. C 2.
Plaister. See Plate 6.
f.
Peircer. See § 22. and Plate 4. H.
Pit-man The Saywer that works in the Pit, is called the Pit-man.
Pit-Saw. The Pit-saw is a great Saw fitted into a square Frame; as in Plate 4. M is a Pit-saw.
[Page 114]Planchier. In Plate 6. between
d and
e is the Planchier.
Plinth. See Plate 6.
Plow. See § 8. and Plate 4. B 6.
Pricker. Is vulgarly called an Awl: Yet for Joiners Use it hath most commonly a square blade, which enters the Wood better than a round blade will; because the square Angle in turning it about breaks the Grain, and so the Wood is in less danger of splitting.
R.
Rabbet. See § 7.
Rabbet Plane. See § 7. and Plate 4. B 5.
Rack. See Plate 5. fig. 8. Read § 36.
Rail. See Plate 7. AAA.
Rank. The Iron of a Plane is said to be
set Rank, when its edge stands so flat below the Sole of the Plane, that in working it will take off a thick shaving. See § 3.
Rank-set. See Rank.
Range. The side of any Work that runs straight, without breaking into Angles, is said to
run Range: Thus the Rails and Pannels of one straight side of Wainscoting is said to
run Range.
Return. The side that falls away from the foreside of any Straight or Rank-work, is called the
Return.
Riglet. Is a flat thin square piece of Wood: Thus the pieces that are intended to make the Frames for small Pictures,
&c. before they are Molded are called
Riglets.
S.
Saw-wrest. See § 26. fol. 97. and Plate 4. O.
Scantlin. The size that your stuff is intended to be cut to.
[Page 115]Scribe. When Joiners are to fit a side of a piece of Stuff against the side of some other piece of Stuff, and the side of the piece of Stuff they are to fit to is not regular; To make these two pieces of Stuff join close together all the way, they Scribe it, (as they phrase it,) thus; They lay the piece of Stuff they intend to Scribe close against the other piece of Stuff they intend to Scribe to, and open their Compasses to the widest Distance, these two pieces of Stuff bear off each other: Then (the Compasses moving stiff in their Joint) they bear the point of one of the shanks against the side they intend to Scribe to, and with the point of the other shank they draw a Line upon the Stuff to be Scribed; and then the points of the Compasses remaining unremov'd, and your Hand carried even along by the side of the piece to be Scribed to, that Line Scribed upon the piece intended to be Scribed, shall be parallel to the irregular side intended to be Scribed to: And if you work away your Stuff exactly to that Line, when these two pieces are put together, they shall seem a Joint.
Shoot a Joint. See fol. 63.
Skew-former. See § 12. and Plate 4. C 4.
Smoothing Plane. See § 6. and Plate 4. B 4.
Sole. See Plate 4. B 7.
bab. The under side of a Plane is called the
Sole.
Square. See § 15. and Plate 4. D.
Staff. See § 21. and Plate 4. G
c.
Staves. See § 8. and Plate 4. B 6.
aa.
Stile. The upright Pieces AA in Pl. 7. are
Stiles.
Stock. See § 22. and Plate 4. H
c.
Stops. In Plate 6.
kk are
Stops.
Stuff. The Wood that Joiners work upon they call in general
Stuff.
Sur-base. In Plate 7. D is the
Sur-base.
Swelling-Friese. In Plate 6.
r is the
Swelling-friese.
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works Applied to the ART of
House-Carpentry.
BEING now come to exercise upon the
Carpenters Trade, it may be expected, by some, that I should insist upon
Architecture, it being so absolutely necessary for Builders to be acquainted with: But my Answer to them is, that there are so many Books of
Architecture extant, and in them the Rules so well, so copiously, and so compleatly handled, that it is needless for me to say any thing of that Science: Nor do I think any Man that should, can do more than Collect out of their Books, and perhaps deliver their Meanings in his own Words. Besides,
Architecture is a Mathematical Science, and therefore different from my present Undertakings, which are (as by my Title) Mechanick Exercises: yet because Books of Architecture are as necessary for a Builder to understand, as the use of Tools; and lest some Builders should not know how to enquire for them, I shall at the latter end of
Carpentry give you the Names of some Authors, especially such as are Printed in the
English Tongue.
Some may perhaps also think it had been more proper for me in these Exercises to have introduced
Carpentry before
Joinery, because Necessity, (the Mother of Invention) did doubtless compel
[Page 118] our Fore-fathers in the beginning to use the conveniency of the first, rather than the extravagancy of the last. I confess, I considered it my self, and had in my own Reason been persuaded to it. but that I also considered that the Rules they both work by are upon the matter in the same, in
Sawing, Mortessing, Tenanting, Scribing, Paring, Plaining, Moulding, &c. and likewise the Tools they work with the same, though some of them somewhat stronger for Carpenter's Use than they need be for Joiner's; because Joiners work more curiously, and observe the Rules more exactly than Carpenters need do. And therefore I say it was, that I began with Joinery before Carpentry; for he that knows how to work curiously, may, when he lists, work slightly; when as they that are taught to work more roughly, do with greater difficulty perform the curious and nice work. Thus we see Joiners Work their Tables exactly flat and smooth, and shoot their Joint so true, that the whole Table shews all one piece: But the Floors Carpenters lay are also by Rule of Carpentry to be laid flat and true, and shall yet be well enough laid, though not so exactly flat and smooth as a Table.
Yet though the Rules Joiners and Carpenters work by are so near the same, and the Tools they work with, and Stuff they work upon, the same; yet there are many Requisites proper to a Carpenter, (especially a Master Carpenter) that a Joiner need take little notice of, which, after I have described the Carpenters Tools that are not exprest among the Joiners, I shall speak to.
§ 1. Of several Tools used in Carpentry, that are not used in Joinery. And first of the
Ax.
THe
Ax marked
A in
Plate 8. is (as you see) different from what the Joiners Hatchet is,
[Page]
[figure]
[Page 119] both in Size and Form; theirs being a light Hatchet, with a Basil edge on its left side, because it is to be used with one hand, and therefore hath a short Handle: But the Carpenter's
Ax being to hew great Stuff, is made much deeper and heavier, and its edge tapering into the middle of its Blade. It hath a long Handle, because it is used with both their Hands, to square or bevil their Timbers.
When they use the Ax, the Timber hath commonly some Bauk or Log laid under it near each end, that the edge of the Ax may be in less danger of striking into the ground, when they hew near the bottom of the Timber. And they commonly stand on that side the Timber they hew upon.
§ 2. Of the
Adz, and its use.
THe
Adz marked
B in
Plate 8. hath its Blade made thin, and somewhat arching. As the Ax hath its edge parallel to its Handle, so the
Adz hath its edge athwart the Handle, and is ground to a Basil on its inside to its outer edge: Wherefore when it is blunt they cannot well grind it, unless they take its Helve out of its Eye.
Its general Use is to take thin Chips off Timber or Boards, and to take off those Irregularities that the Ax by reason of its Form cannot well come at; and that a Plane (though rank set) will not make riddance enough with.
It is most used for the taking off the Irregularities on the framed Work of a Floor, when it is framed and pin'd together, and laid on its place; for that lying flat under them, the edge of the Ax being parallel to its Handle (as aforesaid) cannot come at the Irregularities to take them off; but the
Adz having its edge athwart the Handle will. Again, upon some Posts framed upright, and range with other framed Work close to it,
[Page 120] the edge of the Ax cannot come at the Irregularities for the reason aforesaid, but the
Adz will. And the like for the Irregularities of framed Work on a Ceiling,
&c.
When they work upon the framed Work of a Floor, they take the end of the Handle in both their Hands, placing themselves directly before the Irregularity, at a small Distance, stradling a little with both their Legs, to prevent Danger from the edge of the
Adz, and so by degrees hew off the Irregularity. But if they hew upon an Upright, they stand directly before it.
They sometimes use the
Adz upon small thin Stuff, to make it thinner, (but this is many times when the Ax, or some other properer Tool, lies not at hand) and then they lay their Stuff upon the Floor, and hold one end of it down with the Ball of the Foot, if the Stuff be long enough; if not, with the ends of their Toes, and so hew it lightly away to their size, form, or both.
§ 3. Of Carpenters
Chissels in general.
THough Carpenters for their finer Work use all the sorts of
Chissels described in the Art of Joinery yet are not those sorts of
Chissels strong enough for their rougher and more common Work, and therefore they also use a stronger sort of
Chissels; and distinguish them by the name of
Socket-Chissels: For whereas those
Chissels Joiners use have their wooden Heads made hollow to receive the Iron Sprig above the Shoulder of the Shank, Carpenters have their Shank made with an
hollow Socket at its Top, to receive a strong wooden Sprig made to fit into the
Socket, with a square Shoulder above it, the thickness of the Iron of the
Socket, or somewhat more; which makes it much more strong, and able to endure the heavy blows of the
Mallet they lay upon the head of the
Chissel.[Page 121] And the Shanks and Blades are made stronger for Carpenter's Use than they are for Joiners.
Of these
Socket-Chissels they have of the several sorts described in Joinery, though not all severally distinguished by their Names; for they call them
Half-Inch, Three-quarter-Inch Chissels, Inch and Half, Two-Inch, to
Three-Inch Chissels, according to the breadth of the Blade. But their Uses are the same mentioned in Joinery, though the manner of using them be somewhat different too: For, as I told you in Joinery, the Joiners press the edge of the Blade into the Stuff, with the strength of their Shoulders, but the Carpenters with the force of the blows of the Mallet. And the Joiners guide their
Chissels differently from what the Carpenters do their
Socket-Chissels; for the Joiners hold the Shank and Blade of their
Chissels, as I described in Joinery,
Sect. 11. but the Carpenters hold the Shank of their
Chissels in their clutched left Hand, and beat upon the Head with the
Mallet in the right. See the Figure of
Socket-Chissel in
Plate 8. C. with its Head
a out of the Socket.
§ 4. Of the
Ripping-Chissel, and its Use.
THe
Ripping-Chissel described in
Plate 8. D. is a
Socket-Chissel, and is about an Inch broad, and hath a blunt Edge. Its Edge hath not a
Basil, as almost all other
Chissels have, and therefore would more properly be called a
Wedge than a
Chissel But most commonly Carpenters use an old cast off
Chissel for a
Ripping-Chissel.
Its Office is not to cut Wood, as others do, but to
rip or
tear two pieces of Wood fastned together from one another, by entering the blunt Edge of it between the two pieces, and then knocking hard with the Mallet upon the head of the Handle, till you drive the thicker part of it between the two pieces, and so force the power that holds
[Page 122] them together (be it Nails, or otherwise) to let go their hold: For its blunt Edge should be made of Steel, and well tempered, so that if you knock with strong blows of the Mallet the
Chissels Edge upon a Nail (though of some considerable Substance) it may cut or brake it short asunder. If you cannot, at once, placing the
Ripping-Chissel, part the two pieces, you must use two
Ripping-Chissels, placing the second at the remotest entrance in the breach, and driving that home, will both open the breach wider, and loosen the first
Ripping-Chissel, so that you may take it again, and place it farther in the breach: And so you must continue edging farther and farther, till you have separated your intended pieces.
It is sometimes used when Carpenters have committed Error in their Work, and must undo what they did, to mend it. But it is generally used in all Alterations, and old Work.
§ 5. Of the
Draw-knife, and its Use.
THe
Draw-knife described
Plate 8. E. is seldom used about House-building, but for the making of some sorts of Houshold-stuff; as the Legs of Crickets, the Rounds of Ladders, the Rails to lay Cheese or Bacon on,
&c.
When they use it, they set one end of their Work against their Breast, and the other end against their Work-bench, or some hollow Angle that may keep it from slipping, and so pressing the Work a little hard with their Breast against the Bench, to keep it steddy in its Position, they with the Handles of the
Draw knife in both their Hands, enter the edge of the
Draw-knife into the Work, and draw Chips almost the length of their Work, and so smoothen it quickly.
THe Hook-Pin is described
Plate 8. F.
a the
Pin, b the
Hook, c the
Head. Its Office is to pin the Frame of a Floor, or Frame of a Roof together, whilst it is framing, or whilst it is fitting into its Position. They have many of these
Hook-Pins to drive into the several Angles of the Frame. These drive into the Pin-holes through the Mortesses and Tennants, and being made Taper, do with a Hammer striking on the bottom of it knock it out again; or they most commonly strike under the Hook, and so knock it out. Then if the Frame lie in its place, they pin it up with wooden Pins.
§ 7. Of the
Level, and its use.
THe
Level described in
Plate 8. G.
aa the
Level, b the
Plumbet, c the
Plumb-line, dd the
Perpendicular mark'd from the top to the bottom of the Board. The
Level is from two to ten Foot long, that it may reach over a considerable length of the Work. If the
Plumb-line hang just upon the
Perpendicular dd, when the
Level is set flat down upon the Work, the Work is
Level: But if it hang on either side the
Perpendicular, the Floor, or Work, must be raised on that side, till the
Plumb-line hang exactly upon the
Perpendicular.
§ 8. Of the
Plumb-line, and its use.
THe
Plumb-line is described in
Plate 8. H.
a the
Line-Rowl, b the
Line. It is used to try the upright standing of Posts, or other Work that is to stand Perpendicular to the Ground Plot; and then they draw off so much Line as is necessary, and fasten the rest of the Line there, upon the
Line-Rowl with a Slip-knot, that no more Line turn off· They hold the end of the Line between
[Page 124] their Finger and Thumb half the Diameter of the
Line-Rowl off one corner of the Post, or Work; and if the
Line and Corner of the Post be parallel to each other, the Post is upright: But if the Post be not parallel to the
Line, but its bottom stands more than half the Diameter of the
Line-Rowl from the
Line, the Post hangs so much over the bottom of the Post on that side the
Line bears off, and must be forced backwards till the side of the Post and the
Line become parallel to each other. But if the bottom of the Corner of the Post stands out from the top of the
Line, the Post must be forced forwards to comply with the
Line.
§ 9. Of the
Hammer, and its Use.
THe
Hammer is described in
Plate 8. I.
a the
Face, b the
Claw, cc the
Pen at the return sides of the
Claw. This Tool was forgot to be described in
Joinery, though they use
Hammers too, and therefore I bring it in here. Its chief Use is for driving Nails into Work, and drawing Nails out of Work.
There is required a pretty skill in driving a Nail; for if (when you set the point of a Nail) you be not curious in observing to strike the flat face of the
Hammer perpendicularly down upon the perpendicular of the Shank, the Nail (unless it have good entrance) will start aside▪ or bow, or break; and then you will be forced to draw it out again with the
Claw of the
Hammer. Therefore you may see a reason when you buy a
Hammer, to chuse one with a true flat
Face.
A little trick is sometimes used among some (that would be thought cunning Carpenters) privately to touch the Head of the Nail with a little Ear-wax, and then lay a Wager with a Stranger to the Trick, that he shall not drive that Nail up to the Head with so many blows. The
[Page 125] stranger thinks he shall assuredly win, but does assuredly lose; for the
Hammer no sooner touches the Head of the Nail, but instead of entring the Wood it flies away, notwithstanding his utmost care in striking it down-right.
§ 10. Of the
Commander, and its Use.
THe
Commander is described in
Plate 8. K. It is indeed but a very great wooden
Mallet, with an Handle about three foot long, to use in both the Hands.
It is used to knock on the Corners of Framed Work, to set them into their position. It is also used to drive small wooden Piles into the ground,
&c. or where greater Engines may be spared.
§ 11. Of the
Crow, and its Use.
THe
Crow is described in
Plate 8. L.
a the
Shank, bb the
Claws, c the
Pike-end. It is used as a
Lever to lift up the ends of great heavy Timber, when either a Bauk, or a Rowler, is to be laid under it; and then they thrust the
Claws between the Ground and the Timber, and laying a Bauk, or some such Stuff behind the
Crow, they draw the other end of the Shank backwards, and so raise the Timber.
§ 12. Of the
Drug, and its Use.
THe
Drug described in
Plate 9. A. is made somewhat like a low narrow Carr. It is used for the carriage of Timber, and then is drawn by the Handle
aa, by two or more Men, according as the weight of the Timber may require.
There are also some Engines used in Carpentry, for the management of their heavy Timber, and hard Labour,
viz. the
Jack, the
Crab, to which belongs Pullies and Tackle,
&c. Wedges, Rowlers, great Screws,
&c. But I shall give you an
[Page 126] account of them when I come to the explanation of Terms at the latter end of
Carpentry.
§ 13. Of the
Ten-foot Rod, and thereby to measure and describe the
Ground-plot.
WE shall begin therefore to measure the
Ground-plot, to which Carpenters use a
Ten-foot Rod for Expedition, which is a Rod about an Inch square, and ten foot long; being divided into ten equal parts, each part containing one foot, and is divided into 24 equal parts, and their Sub-divisions.
With this
Rod they measure the length and breadth of the
Ground-plot into Feet, and if there be odd Inches, they measure them with the
Two-foot Rule. Their measure they note down upon a piece of paper, and having considered the situation of the Sides,
East, West, North and
South, they draw on paper their several Sides accordingly, by a small Scale, either elected, or else made for that purpose. They may elect their
Two-foot Rule for some plots; for an Inch and an half may commodiously serve to set off one Foot on some small
Ground-plots, and then you have the Inches to that Foot actually divided by the Marks for the half quarters on the
Two-foot Rule. But this large Scale will scare serve to describe a
Ground-plot above ten Foot in length, because a small sheet of Paper is not above 15 or 16 Inches long, and therefore one sheet of Paper will not contain it, if the
Ground-plot be longer: Therefore if you make every half quarter of an Inch to be a Scale for two Inches, a sheet of Paper will contain 20 Foot in length: And if you make every half quarter of an Inch to be a Scale for four Inches, a sheet of Paper will contain 40 Foot. And thus by diminishing the Scale, the sheet of Paper will contain a greater number of Feet.
[Page 127]But having either elected, or else made your Scale, you are to open your Compasses to the number of Feet on your Scale your
Ground-plot hath in length, and then transfer that Distance to your paper, and to draw a straight Line between the two points, and mark that straight Line with
East, West, North or
South, according to the situation of that side of the
Ground-plot it represents. Then again open your Compasses to the number of Feet on your Scale one of the adjoining Sides contains, and transfer that Distance also to your paper, and draw a Line between the two points, and note its situation of
East, West, North or
South, as before. Do the like by the other Sides; and if either a Quirk, or any Addition, be added to the Building, on any side of your
Ground-plot, you must describe it also proportionably.
Then you are to consider what Apartments, or Partitions, to make on your
Ground-plot, or second, or third Story, and to set them off from your Scale, beginning at your intended Front. As for Example, Suppose your
Ground-plot be a Long-square, 50 Foot in length, and 20 Foot wide: This
Ground-plot will contain in its length two good Rooms, and a Yard behind it 10 Foot long. If you will, you may divide the 40 Foot into two equal parts, so will each Room be 20 Foot square: Or you may make the Rooms next the Front deeper, or shallower, and leave the remainder for the Back-Room: As here the Front-Room is 25 Foot, and the Back-Room 15 Foot deep, and a setting off of 8 Foot broad and 10 Foot long taking out of the Yard, for a Buttery below Stairs (if you will) and Closets above Stairs over it. But what width and depth soever you intend your Rooms shall have, you must open your Compasses to that number of Feet on your Scale, and set off that Distance on the
East, West, North or
South,[Page 128] Line, according to the Situation of that side it represents on your
Ground-plot. If you set it off the
East Line, you must also set it off on the
West; if on the
North Line, you must also set it off on the
South Line: Because between the two Settings off on the
East and
West Lines, or
North or
South Lines, you must draw a straight Line of the length of your intended Partition. And in this manner you must from every Partition draw a Line in its proper place on the Paper, by measuring the Distances each Partition must have from the outside of the
Ground-plot.
And thus you are also to describe by your Scale your Front, and several sides of the Carcase; allowing the
Principal Posts, Enterduces, Quarterings, Braces, Gables, Doors, Windows, and
Ornaments, their several Sizes, and true Positions by the Scale: Each side upon a Paper by it self: Unless we shall suppose our Master-Workman to understand
Perspective; for then he may, on a singgle piece of Paper, describe the whole Building, as it shall appear to the Eye at any assigned Station.
§ 14. Of
Foundations.
HAving drawn the
Draft, the Master-Workman is first to cause the Cellars to be dug, if the House shall have Cellars. And then to try the Ground, that it be all over of an equal firmness, that when the weight of the Building is set upon it, it may not sink in any part. But if the Ground be hollow or weaker in any place, he strengthens it, sometimes by well ramming it down, and levelling it again with good dry Earth, Lime-Core, Rubbish,
&c. or sometimes with ramming in Stones, or sometimes with well Planking it; or most securely by driving in Piles. But driving in of Piles is seldom used for Timber
[Page 129] Houses, but for Stone, or Brick Houses, and that but in few places of
England neither, but where the Ground proves
Fenny, or
Moorish. Therefore a farther account shall be given of Foundations, when I come to exercise upon
Masonry, &c.
Then are the Celler-Walls to be brought up by a
Brick-layer with
Brick; for small Houses two Bricks thick, for bigger two and an half Bricks thick, or three or four Bricks thick, according to the bigness of the House, and quality of the Ground, as I shall shew when I come to Exercise on
Bricklaying.
But if the House be designed to have no Cellars (as many Country-Houses have not) yet for the better securing the Foundation, and preserving the Timber from rotting, Master-Workmen will cause three, or four, or five course of Bricks to be laid, to lay their
Ground-plates upon that Foundation.
The Foundation being made good, the Master-Workman appoints his Under-Workmen their several
Scantlins, for
Ground-plates, Principal Post
[...], Posts, Bressummers, Girders, Trimmers, Joysts, &c. which they cut square, and frame their Timbers to, as has been taught in the several Exercises upon Joinery, (whither I refer you) and there set them up, each in its proper place, according to the Draft.
The Draft of a Foundation I have described in
Plate 10, according to a Scale of eight Foot in an Inch; where you have the Front AB 20 Foot long, the sides AC and BD 50 Foot long. The Shop, or first Room, EE 25 Foot (as aforesaid) deep. I make the first Room a Shop, because I intend to describe
Shop-windows, Stalls, &c. though you may Build according to any other purpose: The
Kitching, or
Back-Room FF 15 Foot deep. A
Buttry or
Closet, taken out of the
Yard, marked G,
[Page 130] 10 Foot deep, and 8 Foot wide: H a
Setting off in the
Yard, 4 Foot square for the
House of Office. I
Leaving way in the Shop for a
Stair-Case 6 Foot, and 11 Foot. K The
Yard. L The
Sink-hole 1 Foot square. M
Leaving way in the
Kitching 6 Foot deep, and 4 Foot wide for the
Chimneys.
I do not deliver this Draft of Partitions for the most Commodious for this Ground-plot, nor is the House set out designed for any particular Inhabitant; which is one main purpose to be considered of the Master-Workman, before he make his Draft; for a Gentleman's House must not be divided as a Shop-keeper's, nor all Shop-keepers House a-like; for some Trades require a deeper, others may dispence with a shallower Shop, and so an Inconvenience may arise in both. For if the Shop be shallow, the Front Rooms upwards ought to be shallow also: Because by the strict Rules of
Architecture, all Partitions of Rooms ought to stand directly over one another: For if your Shop stands in an eminent Street, the Front Rooms are commonly more Airy than the Back Rooms; and always more Commodious for observing publick P
[...]ssages in the Street, and i
[...] that respect it will be inconvenient to make the Front Rooms shallow: But if you have a fair Prospect backwards of Gardens, Feilds,
&c. (which seldom happens in Cities) then it may be convenient to make your Back-Rooms the larger for Entertainment,
&c. Bu
[...] I shall run no farther into this Argument; for I shall leave the Master-Workman to consult Books of
Architecture, and more particularly the Builder, which, in this case, they ought all to do.
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works Continued in the ART of
House-Carpentry.
AC, BD, CD, NO, Ground-plates, Wall-plates, Bresummers, Lintels, the Thickness of the Wall.
AB, Also a Ground-plate, or Ground-sell.
PP, The Summer.
QQQ, Girders.
I, The Well-houle for the Stairs, and Stair-case.
M, Leaving a way for the Chimnies.
bb, Trimmers for the Chimny-way and Stair-case.
aaaa, Joysts.
§ 15. Of
Framing for the
Floors.
THE four Plates, AB, AN, NO and BO, lying on the Foundation, are called
Ground-plates. They are to be of good Oak, and for this size of Building about eight Inches broad, and six Inches deep. They are to be framed into one another with Tennants and Mortesses The longer Ground-plates AN and BO are commonly tennanted into the Front and Rear Ground-plates AB and NO, and into these two side-Ground-plates are Mortesses made for the Tennants at the ends of the Joysts, to be fitted somewhat loosly in, at about ten Inches distance from one another, as in the Draft. These Ground-plates are to be bor
[...]d with an Inch and half
Augre, and well pinned int
[...][Page 132] one another with round Oaken Pins, made tapering towards the point, and so strong, that with the hard blows of a Mallet, they may drive stiff into the
Augre-hole, and keep the Tennant firmly in the Mortess. The manner of making a Tennant and Mortess is taught in
Joinery, p. 85. But because the Stuff
Carpenters work upon, is generally heavy Timber, and consequently not so easily managed as the light Stuff Joiners work upon; therefore they do not atfirst pin the
[...] Tennants into their Mortesses with wooden Pins, lest they should lie out of square, or any other intended Position: But laying a
Block, or some other piece of Timber, under the corner of the Frame-work to bear it hollow off the Foundation, or what ever else it lies upon, they drive
Hook-pins (described in
Plate 8. § 6.) into the four
Augre-holes in the corners of the Ground-plates, and one by one sit the Plates either to a Square, or any other intended Position: And when it is so fitted, they draw out their
Hook-pins, and drive in the wooden Pins (as aforesaid) and taking away the wooden
Blocks one by one from under the corners of the Frame, they let it fall into its place.
But before they pin up the Frame of Ground-plates, they must fit in the
Summer marked PP, and the
Girders QQ, and all the
Joysts marked
aaaa, &c and the
Trimmers for the
Stair-case, and
Chimny-
[...]way marked
bb, and the binding
Joysts marked
cc, for else you cannot get their Tennants into their respective Mortess-holes. But they do I say fit all these in, while the Frame of Ground-plates lies loose, and may, corner by corner, be opened to let the respective Tennants into their respective Mortesses, which when all is done, they Frame the
Raising-plates just as the
Ground-plates are Framed; and then Frame the Roof into the
Raising-plates with
Beams, Joysts, &c.
[Page 133]The
Summer is in this Ground-plate placed at 25 Foot distance from the Front, and is to be of the same Scantlin the principal Plates are of, for Reasons as shall be shewn hereafter: And the
Girders are also to be of the same Scantlins the
Summers and
Ground-plates are of, though according to the nice Rules of
Architecture, the
Back-Girder need not be so strong as the
Front-Girder, because it Bears but at 14 Foot length, and the
Front-Girder Bears at 24 Foot length: Yet Carpenters (for uniformity) generally make them so, unless they build an House by the Great, and are agreed for the Sum of Money,
&c.
The
Joysts Bearing at 8 Foot (as here they do) are to be 7 Inches deep, and 3 Inches broad.
The
Trimmers and
Trimming Joysts are 5 Inches broad and 7 Inches deep, and these
Joysts, Trimmers and
Trimming Joysts, are all to be pinned into their respective Mortesses; and then its flatness try'd with the Level, as was taught § 7.
§ 16. Of setting up the
Carcass.
THough the
Ground-plates, Girders, &c. be part of the Carcass, yet I thought sit in the last Section they should be l
[...]id, before I treated of the Superstructure, which I shall now handle. The four Corner Posts called the
Principal Posts marked AA, should be each of one piece, so long as to reach up to the
Beam of the
Roof, or
Raising-plate, and of the same Scantlin the
Ground-plates are of,
viz. 8 Inches
[...]ro
[...]d, and 6 Inches thick, and set with one of its narrowest sides towards the Front. Its lower end is to be Tennanted, and let into a Morte
[...]s made near the corner of the
Ground-plate Frame; and its upper end hath also a Tennant on it to sit into a Mortess made in the Beam of the Roof, or
Rasing-piece.
[Page 134]At the heighth of the first Story in this Principal Post, must be made two Mortesses, one to receive the Tennant at the end of the Bressummer that lies in the Front, and the other to entertain the Tennant at the end of the Bress
[...]mmer that lies in the Return-side.
Two such M
[...]rtesses must also be made in this Principal
[...]ost at the height of the second Story, to receive the Tennant at the ends of the Bressummers for that Story.
Though I have spoken singularly of one Principal Post, yet as you work this, you must work all four Principal Posts; and then set them plumb upright, which you must try with a Plumb-line described in
Plate 8 §. 8.
Having erected the Principal Posts upright, you must enter the Tennants of the Bressummers into their proper Mortesses, and with a Nail or two (about a single Ten or a double Ten) tack one end of a deal Board, or some other like piece of Stuff to the Bressummer, and the other end to the Fram'd Work of the Floor, to keep the Principal Posts upright, and in their places Then set up the several Posts between the Principal Posts; but these Posts must be Tennanted at each end▪ because they are to be no longer than to reach from Story to Story, or from Entertise to Entertise, and are to be framed into the upper and under Bressummer. If the Entertises be not long enough, they set up a Principal Post between two or three Lengths, to reach from the Ground-plate up to the Raising-plates
It is to be remembred▪ that the Bressummers and Girders are laid flat upon one o
[...] their broadest sides, with their two narrowes
[...] sides Perpendicular to the Ground-plot
[...]; but the Joysts are to be laid contrary: For they
[Page 135] are Framed so as to lie with one of their narrowest sides upwards, with their two broadest sides Perpendicular to the Ground-plot. The reason is, because the Stuff of the Bressummers and Girders are less weakned by cutting the Mortesses in them in this Position, than in the other Position; for as the Tennants for those Mortesses are cut between the top and bottom sides, and the flat of the Tennants are no broader than the flat of the narrowest side of the Joysts; so the Mortesses they are to fit into, need be no broader than the breadth of the Tennant, and the Tennants are not to be above an Inch thick, and consequently the Mortesses are to be made with an Inch Mortess-Chissel, as was shewn in
Joinery, p. 86. for great care must be taken that the Bressummers and Girders be not weakned more than needs, lest the whole Floor dance,
These Tennants are cut through the two narrowest sides, rather than between the two broadest sides, because the Stuff of the Girders retains more strength when least of the Grain of the Stuff is cut: And the Tennants being made between the narrowest sides of the Joyces, requires their Mortess-holes no longer than the breadth of that Tennant: And that Tennant being but an Inch thick, requires its Mortess but an Inch wide to receive it; so that you Mortess into the Girder no more than three Inches wide with the Grain of the Stuff, and one Inch broad contrary to the Grain of the Stuff. But should the Tennant be cut between the two broad sides of the Joysts, the Mortess would be three Inches long, and but one Inch broad, and consequently, you must cut into the Girder three Inches cross the Grain of the Stuff, which would weaken it more than
[...] Inches with the Grain, and one Inch
[...].
[Page 136]But it may be objected that the Tennants of the Joysts being so small, and bearing at an Inch thickness must needs be too weak.
Answer, First, Though the Tennants be indeed but an Inch thick, and three Inches broad; yet the whole Bearing of the Joyces do not solely depend upon their Tennants; because the Girders they are framed into, prove commonly somewhat Wainny upon their upper sides, and the Joysts are always scribed to project over that Waynniness, and so strengthen their Bearing by so much as they project over the Roundness or Waynniness of the upper side of the Girder.
Secondly, The Floor is boarded with the length of the Boards athwart the Joysts, and these Boards firmly railed down to the Joysts, which also adds a great strength to them.
Thirdly, The Joysts are seldom made to Bear at above ten Foot in length, and should by the Rule of good Workmanship, not lie above ten Inches asunder at the most: So that this short Bearing and close discharging of one another, renders the whole Floor firm enough for all common Occupation. But if the Joyces do Bear at above ten Foot in length, it ought to be the care of the Master-workman to provide stronger Stuff for them,
viz Thicker and Broader. If not, they cut a Tusk on the upper side of the Tennant, and let that Tusk into the upper side of the Girders.
Having erected the Principal Post, and other Posts, and fitted in the Bressummers, Girders, Joysts,
&c upon the first Floor, they pin up all the Frame of Carcass-work. But though the Girders and Joysts described for this first Floor, lie proper enough for it; yet for the second Story, and in this particular Case, the Joysts lie not proper for the second Story; because
[Page 137] in the second Story we have described a
Balcony.
Therefore in this Case you must frame the Front-Bressummer about seven Inches lower into the Principal Posts: Because the Joysts for the second Floor are not to be Mortessed into the Bressummer to lie even at the top with it, but must lie upon the Bressummer, and project over it so far as you design the
Balcony to project beyond the Upright of the Front: And thus laying the Joysts upon the Bressummer renders them much stronger to bear the
Balcony, than if Joysts were Tennanted into the Front of the Bressummer, and so project out into the Street from it.
But the Truth is, Though I have given you a Draft of the Joysts lying athwart the Front and Rear for the first Floor, you may as well lay them Range with the two sides on the first Floor. But then the Bressummer that reaches from Front to Rear in the middle of the Floor must be stronger: And Girders must then be Tennanted into the Bressummer, and the Ground-plates at such a Distance, that the Joysts may not Bear at above ten Foot in length. And the Tennants of the Joysts must be Tennanted into the Girders, so that they will then lie Range with the two Sides.
But, a word more of the Bressummer: I say (as before) the Bressummer to Bear at so great Length must be stronger, though it should be discharged at the Length of the Shop, (
viz. at 25 Foot) with a Brick Wall, or a Foundation brought up of Brick. But if it should have no Discharge of Brick-work, but Bear at the whole 40 Foot in Length, your Bressummer must be yet considerably stronger than it need be, were it to Bear but 25 Foot in Length; because the shorter all the Bearings of Timbers are, the firmer they Bear. But then the Fraiming Work will take up m
[...]re Labour: And in
[Page 138] many Cases it is cheaper to put in stronger Stuff for long Bearings, than to put a Girder between, to Discharge the Length of the Joysts to be framed into the Girders.
But to make short of this Argument, I shall give you the Scheme of Scantlins of Timber at several Bearings for
Summers, Girders, Joysts, Rafters, &c. as they are set down in the Act of Parlia. for the Rebuilding the City of
London, after the late dreadful Fire: Which Scantlins were well consulted by able Workmen before they were reduced into an Act.
Scantlins of Timber for the first Sorts of Houses
Foot
Inches
Inches
For the Floor
Summers under
15
12
and—8
Wall-plates
7
and—5
For the Roof
Principal Rafters under
Foot 15 at foot—8 6 Inch
Foot 15 at top—5 6 Inch
Single Rafters
4
and—3 Inches.
Length Foot
Thickness
Depth
Joysts to
10
3
and—7 Inches
Garret Floors
6
Scantlins of Timber for the other two Sorts of Houses.
Breadth Depth
Thickness De
[...]
Foot Foot
Inches Inches
Inches Inch
[...]
For the Floor.
Summers or G
[...]rders which bear in length from
[...]—to—15
11—and—
[...]
Joysts which bear 10 Foot
3—6
15—18
13—9
3—
[...]
1
[...]—21
14—1
[...]
3—
[...]
21—24
16—12
3—
[...]
24—26
17—14
3—
[...]
Inches Inches
Principal Discharges upon Peers in the first Story in the Fronts
13 and 12
15—13
Binding Joysts with their Trimming Joysts
Thickness Inches
5— depth equal to their own Floors
Inches Inches
Wall-plates, or Raising Pieces and Beams
1
[...] and 6
8—6
7—5
Inches Inches
Lintels of Oak in the
1st. and 2d. Story—8 and 6
3d. Story—
[...]—4
For the Roof.
Length
Thickness
Foot Foot
Inches
Inches
Principal Rafters from
15 to 18
at foot 9
at top 7
7
18 — 21
at foot 10
at top 8
8
21—24
at foot 12
at top 9
8 ½
24 — 26
at foot 13
at top 9
9
Length
Foot Foot
Inches Inches
Purlins from
15 to 18—9—8
18—21—12—9
Foot Inches Inches
Single Rafters
not exceeding in length—9—5—4
not exceeding in length—6—4—3—½
Scantlins for Sawed Timber and Laths, usually brought out of the West Country, not less than
Breadth
Thickness
Foot
Inches
Inches
Single Quarters in length
8
3 ½
1 ¾
Double Quart. in length
8
4
3 ½
Sawed Joysts in length
8
6
4
Laths in length
5
4
1 ¼
1 quarter and ½ Inch
Inches
Stone Where Stone is used, to keep to these Scantlins—
First sort of Houses
Corner Peers
18 square
Middle or Single Peers
14 and 12
Double Peers between House and House
14 and 18
Door-Jambs and Heads
12 and 8
2
d & 3
d sorts—
Foot
Inches
Corner Peers
2—6 square
Middle or Single Peers
18 square
Double Peers between House and House
24 and 18
Door Jambs and Heads
14 and 10
Foot
Thickness
Scantlins for Sewers
3 wide
Side-walls-1 Brick ½ Bottom paved plain, and then 1 Brick on edge circular.
5 high
Arch-1 Brick on end Bottom paved plain, and then 1 Brick on edge circular.
IN every Foundation within the Ground add one Brick in thickness to the thickness of the Wall (as in the Scheme) next above the Foundation, to be set off in three Courses equally on both sides.
That no Timber be laid within twelve Inches of the fore-side of the Chimney Jambs: And that all Joysts on the back of any Chimney be laid with a Trimmer at six Inches distance from the Back.
That no Timber be laid within the Tunnel of any Chimney, upon Penalty to the Workman for every Default ten Shillings, and ten Shillings every Week it continues un reformed.
That no Joysts or Rafters be laid at greater distances from one to the other, than twelve Inches; and no Quarters at greater distance than fourteen Inches.
That no Joysts bear at longer length than ten Foot; and no single Rafters at more in length than nine Foot.
That all Roofs, Window-frames, and Celler-floors be made of Oak.
The Tile-pins of Oak.
No Summers or Girders to lie over the Head of Doors and Windows.
No Summer or Girder to lie less than ten Inches into the Wall, no Joysts than eight Inches, and to be laid in Lome.
[Page 141]But yet the Carcass
is not compleated, till the Quarters
and Braces
between the principal Posts
and Posts
are fitted in; the Window-frames
made and set up, and the principal Rafters, Purlins, Gables,
&c. are also fram'd and set up. The manner of their Pitch and Scantlins you will see in Plate
11. And the Reasons for several Pitche
[...]you may find among Books of Architecture.
But the Names of every Member you will find in the Alphabetical Table
at the latter end of these Exercises on Carpentry,
referred unto by Letters and Arithmetical Figures in the Plate aforesaid.
But now we will suppose the Carcass is thus finished. The Bricklayer is then to bring up the Chimnies, and afterwards to Tile
the House. And then the next Work the Carpenter has to do, is to bring up the Stairs,
and Stair-cases,
and afterwards to Floor
the Rooms, and Hang
the Doors,
&c. For should he either bring up the Stairs and Stair-cases, or Floor the Rooms before the House is Tiled, or otherwise covered, if wet Weather should happen it might injure the Stairs, Flooring, &c.
A, The Ground-plate, or Ground-sell.
BB, BB, The Principal Posts.
CC, The Binding Intertises, or indeed, more properly Interduces, Bressummers, Girders.
D, Beam of the Roof, Bressummer, or Girder to the Garret Floor.
LL, Knees of the principal Rafters, to be made all of one piece with the principal Rafters.
M, The Fust of the House.
NN, Purlins.
OO, Shop-windows.
PP, Flaps or Falls.
mmm, Quarters.
nn, Jaums of the Window.
oo, Back and Head of the Window.
pp, Transums.
qq, Munnions.
rr, Furrings, or Shreadings.
V, Single light Windows or L
[...]teons.
sss, Rafters.
§ 16. Of
Window-Frames.
IN Brick Buildings the
Window-Frames are so framed, that the Tennants of the Head-sell, Ground-sell, and Transum, run though the outer
Jaums about four Inches beyond them: And so they are set in a Lay of Morter upon the Brick-wall before the
Peers on either side is brought up, at about three Inches within the Front; So that the Brick-work over the Head and about the Jaums defend it from the Weather. Then the
Bricklayer brings up the
Peers on both sides, so that the four Ends or Tennants that project through the outer Jaums being buried and trimmed into the Brick-work become a Fastning to the
Window-Frame.
[Page 143]But if the Window-Frame stands on a Timber-house, the Head and Ground-sell are sometimes Tennanted into Posts of the Carcass; and then the Posts do the Office of the outer Jaums of the Window-Frame; and the Head and Ground-sell are then called
Entertises, and therefore both Head and Ground-sell, and Posts or Jaums, are rabbetted about half an Inch on the outside of the Front, to receive the Pane of Glass that is fitted to it. And thus (as I said) the Posts become part of the Window-Frame.
But the better way is to frame a Window as the Brick-work Window, and to project it an Inch and a half beyond the side of the Building, and to Plaister against its sides, for the better securing the rest of the Carcass from the Weather.
The Window-Frame hath every one of its Lights Rabbetted on its outside about half an Inch into the Frame, and all these Rabbets, but that on the Ground-sell, are grooved square, but the Rabbets on the Ground-sell is bevell'd downwards, that Rain or Snow,
&c. may the freelier fall off it. Into these Rabbets the several Panes of Glass-work is set, and fastned by the Glasier.
The square Corners of the Frame next the Glass is Bevell'd away both on the out and inside of the Building, that the Light may the freelier play upon the Glass And upon that Bevel is commonly Stuck a Molding (for Ornament sake) according to the Fancy of the Workman, but more generally according to the various Mode of the Times.
SEveral Writers of
Architecture have delivered different Rules for the Height and Breadth of
Steps, and that according to the several Capacities of the
Stair-Cases. They forbid more than six, and less than four Inches for the Heighth of each Step, and more than sixteen, and less than twelve, for the Breadth of each Step. But here we must understand they mean these Measures should be observed in large and sumptuous Buildings: But we have here proposed an ordinary private House, which will admit of no such Measures, for want of room. Therefore to our present purpose.
The first and second Pair of Stairs the Steps shall be about 7 ⅓ Inches high, and 10 Inches broad. The third Pair of Stairs each Step may be about 6 ½ Inches high, and 9 ½ Inches broad. And for the fourth Pair of Stairs, each Step may be about 6 Inches high, and 9 Inches broad. But this Rule they do, or should follow,
viz. to make all the Steps belonging to the same pair of Stairs of an equal height; which to do, they first consider the heighth of the Room in Feet and odd Inches, if any odd be, and multiply the Feet by 12, whose Product, with the number of odd Inches, gives the sum of the whole Heighth in Inches; which sum they divide by the number of Steps they intend to have in that Heighth, and the Quotient shall be the number of Inches and parts that each Step shall be high. Or, if they first design the Heighth of each Step in Inches, they try by Arithmetick how many times the Heighth of a Step they can have out of the whole Heighth of the Story, and so know the number of Steps.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works. Continued in the ART of
House-Carpentry.
STAIRS are either made about a
Solid Newel, or an
Open Newel, and sometimes mixt,
viz. with a Solid Newel for some few Steps; then a straight or Foreright Ascent, with
Flyers upon the side of the square Open Newel, and afterwards a Solid Newel again. Than reiterate,
&c.
The last,
viz. the
Mixt Newel'd Stairs, are commonly made in our
Party-walled Houses in
London, where no Light can be placed in the Stair-Case, because of the Party-walls; so that there is a necessity to let in a
Sky-light through the Hollow Newel: But this sort of Stair-Cases take up more room than those with a single solid Newel; because the Stairs of a solid Newel spread only upon one small Newel, as the several Foulds of the Fans Woman use spread about their Center: But these because they sometimes wind, and sometimes fly off from that winding, take therefore the more room up in the Stair-Case.
The manner of projecting them, is copiously taught in many Books of
Architecture, whether I referr you: Yet not to leave you wholly in the
[Page 146] dark, I shall give you a small light into it. And first of the
Solid Nowel.
Winding Stairs are projected on a round
Profile, whose Diameter is equal to the Base the Stair-Case is to stand on, suppose six foot square. This
Profile hath its Circumference divided into 16 equal parts. The Semi-diameter of the
Profile is divided into four equal parts, and one of them used for the Newel, and the rest for the length of the Steps: If you draw Lines from the Center through every one of the equal parts into the Circumference, the space between every two Lines will be the true Figure of a
Winding-Step. And if they were all cut out and placed one above another, over the true place on the Profile round about the Newel, whose Diameter is one quarter the length of a Step, you would by supporting each Step with a
Raiser have the modle of a true pair of
Winding-Stairs. See Plate 10. Fig. 2.
Hollow Newel'd Stairs are made about a square Hollow Newel. We will suppose the
Well-hole to be eleven foot long, and six foot wide; and we would bring up a pair of Stairs from the first
Floor eleven Foot high; it being intended that a Skie-light shall fall through the Hollow Newel upon the Stairs: We must therefore consider the width and breadth of the Hollow Newel; and in this example admit it to be two foot and a half wide, and two foot broad: By the width I mean the sides that range with the Front and Rear of the Building, and by the breadth I mean the sides that range with the Party-walls.
I find (by the Rule aforesaid) that if I assign 18 Steps up, each Step will be seven Inches and one third of an Inch high.
[Page 147]You must Note, that the flying off, or else winding of these Steps will vary their places according as you design the first Ascent. For if you make the first Ascent as you come straight out of the Street (as in Plate 10.) on the
South-side, you will first ascend upon a Pitch of
Flyers, which Pitch (making an Angle of 38 deg. with the Floor) with ten Steps raise you six Foot high above the Floor, and bring you eight Foot towards the
North-end of the
Well-hole, by making each Step ten Inches broad.
But now you must leave
Flyers, and make four Winding Steps. These Winding Steps are made about a solid
Newel (as hath been taught) and this
Newel serves also for a
Post to
Trim the
Stair-Case too. This Post stands upon the Floor, and is prolonged upwards so high, that Mortesses made in it may receive the Tennants of the
Top and
Bottom Rails of the whole Stair-case for that Floor: These four Winding steps aforesaid, rounding one quarter about the Newel, turns your Face in your Ascent now towards the
East; these four steps are raised 2 foot, 5 ⅓ Inches above the Flyers, so that (in all) your Stairs are now raised 8 foot 6 ⅔ Inches. Here remains now only 2 foot 5 ½ Inches to the
Landing place, and these take up just four Flyers, which must be made as was taught before.
But now in your second pair of Stairs, it will be proper to begin your Ascent with your Face towards the
West: For landing by the first pair of Stairs with your Face towards the
East, you turn by the side of the Rail on the second Floor from the
East towards the
North, and at the further end of that Rail, you turn your Face again from the
North towards the
West, and begin your Ascent on the second pair of Stairs.
[Page 148]Between the Skie-light and the Ascent is a Post set upright to fasten Rails into: (to bound the Stair-case) from the bottom of which,
viz. on the second Floor you trim up three Flyers, and then turn off a quarter of a Circle, with Winding Steps: Then again, Flyers to your designed pitch: And then again another quarter of a Circle with Winding Steps,
&c.
The Rail these Steps are built upon, being at the beginning or bottom of the Ascent framed or otherwise fastned to the first upright Post, must at its higher end be framed into the next Post also, with a Bevel Tennant, as you were taught to frame
Quarters into one another,
Numb. 5. § 17. Only with this difference, that there you were taught to frame Square; but here you must frame upon the
Bevel, as you were taught,
Numb 5. § 19. This Post aforesaid bears upon the Floor, to make its Bearing the stronger; and this Post must be continued to such an heighth, as it may also serve to receive the Tennanted end of an upper and lower Rail framed into it. And between these
Bevelling Rails, Bannisters make good the outside of the
Stair-Case.
Though I have here described this Contrivance of a pair of Stairs, yet do I not deliver it as the best Patern for this Building, or for these sorts of Stairs, nor matters it to our purpose whether it be or no; for (as I told you before) my undertaking is the
Doctrine of Handy-works, not
Architecture; but it's
Architecture considers the best forming of all Members in a Building for the capacity of the Ground-Plot, and the Convenience of the intended Inhabitant; but Carpenters (as Carpenters) only work by directions prescribed by the Architect.
These therefore are the common Rules that these sorts of Stairs, and indeed all others with
[Page 149] carving according to the Profile or Ground-plot of the Stairs are made by. But those that will see many Inventions may consult Books of
Architecture, &c.
§ 18. Of
Flooring of
Rooms.
THough Carpenters never Floor the Rooms till the Carcass is set up, and also inclosed by the Plaisterer, lest weather should wrong the Flooring; yet they generally
Rough-plane their
Boards for Flooring before they begin any thing else about the Building, that they may set them by to season: Which thus they do, they lean them one by one on end aslant with the edge of the Board against a Bauk, somewhat above the height of half the length of the Board, and set another Board in the same posture on the other side the Bauk, so that above the Bauk they cross one another: Then on the first side they set another Board in that posture, and on the second side another, till the whole number of Boards are set an end: Being set in this posture, there remains the thickness of a Board between every Board all the length, but just where they cross one another, for the Air to pass through to dry and shrink them, against they have occasion to use them: But they set them under some covered Shed, that the Rain or Sun comes not at them; for if the Rain wet them, instead of shrinking them, it will smell them; or if the Sun shine fiercely upon them, it will dry them so fast, that the Boards will
Tear or
Sh
[...], which is in vulgar English,
Split or
Crack.
They have another way to dry and season them, by laying them flat upon three or four Bauks, each Board about the breadth of a Board asunder, the whole length of the Bauks. Then they lay another Lay of Boards athwart upon
[Page 150] them, each Board also the breadth of a Board asunder; then another Lay athwart the last, till all are thus laid: So that in this position they also lye hollow for the Air to play between them.
Thus then, the Boards being Rough-plain'd and Season'd. They try one side flat, as by
Numb. 6. § 31. and both the edges straight, as if they were to shoot a Joint; as by
Numb. 4. § 4. and cut the Boards to an exact length, because if the Boards are not long enough to reach athwart the whole Room, the ends may all lye in a straight Line, that the straight ends of other Boards laid against them may make the truer Joint, and this they call a
Beaking Joint. But before they lay them upon the Floor, they try with the
Level (described § 7.) the flatness of the whole Frame of Flooring again, lest any part of it should be
Cast since it was first framed together; and if any part of the Floor lye too high, they with the
Adz (if the eminency be large) take it off, as was shewed
[...] 2. Or if it be small, with the
Jack-Plain in
Numb. 4 § 2. till it lye level with the rest of the Floor. But if any part of the Floor prove hollow, they lay a Chip, or some such thing, upon that hollow place, to bare up the Board, before they nail it down.
All this being done, they chuse a Board of the commonest thickness of the whole Pile for the first Board, and lay it close again one side of the Room athwart the Joysts, and so nail it firmly down with two Brads into every Joyst it crosses, each Brad about an Inch, or an Inch and a half within the edge of the Board.
If they should lay more than an ordinary thick or thin Board at the first, they would have a greater number of Boards to work to a Level
[Page 151] than they need, because all the rest of the Boards must be equalized in thickness to the first.
Then they lay a second Board close to the first. But before they nail it down they again try how its sides agrees with the side of the first, and also how its thickness agrees with the first Board. If any part of its edge lye hollow off the edge of the first Board, they shoot off so much of the length of the Board from that hollowness towards either end, till it comply and make a close Joint with the first. But if the edge swell in any place, they plain of that swelling till it comply as aforesaid.
If the second Board prove thicker than the first, then with the
Adz (as aforesaid) they hew away the under side of that Board (most commonly cross the Grain, lest with the Grain the edge of the
Adz should slip too deep into the Board) in every part of it that shall bare upon a Joyst, and so sink it to a flat superficies to comply with the first Board. If the Board be too thin, they underlay that Board upon every Joyst with a Cap,
&c.
And as this second Board is laid, so are the other Boards laid, if they be well assured the Boards are dry, and will not shrink; but if they doubt the driness of the Boards, they (sometimes do, or should) take a little more pains; for after they have nailed down the first Board, they will measure the breadth of two other Boards, laying them by the side of the first. But yet they will not allow them their full Room to lye in, but after there edges are true shot in a straight line, they will pinch them off about half a quarter of an Inch room more or less, according as they guess at the well-seasonedness of the Boards; by nailing down the fourth Board nearer to the first Board by half a quarter
[Page 152] of an Inch (more or less) then the breadth of both Boards are. And though it be afterwards somewhat hard to get these two Boards into that narrow room,
viz. between the first and fourth Board, yet they help themselves thus: The under-edge of these Boards that are to join to each other, they Bevel somewhat away, and then the first and fourth Board being fast nailed down (as aforesaid) they set the outer edges of these two Boards again the two nailed Boards, letting the inner edges of the two loose Boards meet▪ and make an Angle perpendicular to the F
[...]oor. Then with two or three Men jumping
[...] upon that Angle, these two Boards
[...] and reiterated jumps by degrees
[...] the superficies of the Floor,
[...] with forcing Pins and Wedges, force them together: And then with Brads they nail them down, as they did the first Board. Thus afterwards they nail down a seventh Board, as they did the fourth, and then fit in the fifth and sixth Boards, as they did the second and third Boards. And so on, nailing down every third Board, and forcing two others between it and the last nailed Board, till the whole Floor be boarded.
But if these Boards are not long enough (as I hinted before) to reach through the whole Room, they examine how true the ends lye in a straight line with one another, by applying the edge of the Two-foot Rule to the ends, and where the ends of any Boards keep of the edge of the Two-foot Rule from complying with the whole range of ends, they with the
Chissel and
Mallet cut off that irregularity, holding and guiding the Chissel, so that it may rather cut away more of the bottom then top of the Board, that so the Boards joined to the ends of the first
[Page 153] laid Boards, may make on the Superficies of the Floor the finer and truer Joint.
Having thus Boarded the whole Room, notwithstanding they used their best diligence to do it exactly, yet may the edges of some Boards lye somewhat higher than the Board it lies next to; therefore they peruse the whole Floor, and where they find any irregularities they plane them off with the Plane,
&c.
§ 19. The
Hanging of
Doors, Windows, &c.
THe Floors being Boarded, the next work is to
Hang the
Doors, in which tho' there be little difficulty, yet is there much care to be taking, that the
Door open and shut well.
If the
Door have a
Door-Case (as Chamber-Doors, and Closet-Doors commonly have) the
Jaums of the Door-Case must stand exactly perpendicular, which you must try by the Plumb-line, as by § 8. and the Head of the
Door-Case or Entertise must be fitted exactly square to the
Jaums, as you where taught
Numb. 3. § 17, 18, 19. and the Angles of the
Door must be made exactly square, and the
Rabbets of the
Door to fit axactly into the
Rabbets of the
Door-Case. But yet they commonly make the
Door about one quarter of an Inch shorter than the insides of the
Jaums of the
Door-Case, least if the Boards of the Floor chance to swell within the sweep of the
Door, the bottom of the
Door should drag upon the
Floor.
They consider what sort of
Hindges are properest for the
Door they are to
Hang. When they have a
Street-door (which commonly is to take off and lift on) they use
Hooks and
Hindges. In a
Battend-door, Back-door, or other
Battend-door, or
Shop-windows, they use
Cross-Garnets. If a
Framed Door, Side Hindges ▪ And for
Cup-boards
[Page 154] Doors, and such like,
Duf-tails. (See the description of these Hindges in
Numb. 1.
Fig. 1. 5, 6.) But what sort of Hindges soever they use, they have care to provide them of a strength proportionable to the size and weight of the
Door they hang with them. Well-made Hindges I have described
Numb. 1.
fol. 20. whither to avoid repetition I refer you.
If they hang a
Street-door (which is commonly about six
foot high) they first drive the
Hooks into the
Door-post, by entring the Post first with an
Augure: But the
Bit of the
Augure, must be less than the Shank of the
Hook, and the hole boared not so long, because the Shank of the
Hook, must be strongly forced into the Augure-hole, and should the Augure-hole be too wide, the Shank would be loose in it, and not stick strong enough in it. Therefore if the Shank be an Inch square, an half Inch-Augure is big enough to bore that hole with, because it will then endure the heavier blows of an Hammer, to drive it so far as it must go; and the stronger it is forced in, the faster the
Hook sticks; but yet they are careful not to split the
Door-post.
These
Hooks are commonly drove in about Fifteen Inches and an half above the
Ground-sell, and as much below the top of the
Door. It is, or should be, their care to chuse the Pin of the lower
Hook about a quarter of an Inch longer than that they use for the upper
Hook (or else to make it so) because these
Doors are commonly unweildy to lift off and on, especially to lift both the Hindges on both the
Hooks at once. Therefore when the lower Hindge is lifted on the lower
Hook, if the
Door be then lifted perpendicularly upright, so high as the under side of the upper Hindge may just reach the top
[Page 155] of the upper
Hook, you may the easier slip the Eye of the upper Hindge upon the
Hook; whereas, if the lower
Hook be either shorter, or just no longer than the other, instead of lifting it readily upon the upper
Hook, you may lift it off the lower
Hook, and so begin the labour again.
Having drove in the
Hooks, they set the
Rabbets of the
Door within the
Rabbets of the
Door-post, and underlay the bottom of the
Door, with a Chip or two about half a quarter of an Inch thick, to raise the
Door that it drag not. Then they put the Eyes of the Hindges over the Pins of the
Hooks, and placing the Tail piece of the Hindges parallel to the bottom and top of the
Door, they so nail them upon.
This is the Rule they generally observe for Hanging
Doors, Shop-windows, &c. Only, sometimes instead of Nailing the Hindges upon the Door, they
Rivet them on, for more strength. And then, after they have fitted the Door, or Window, into its Rabbets, and laid the Hindges in there proper place and position (as aforesaid) they make marks in the Nail-holes of the Hindge with the point of their Compasses upon the
Door, and at those marks they Pierce holes, with a
Piercer-Bit, that fits the shank of the
Rivet; then they put the shank of the
Rivet thro' the holes made in the
Door; yet so that the Head of the Rivet be on the outside of the
Door; and they also put the end of the Shank into the Nail-hole of the Hinge, and so whilst another Man holds the head of the Hatchet against the Head of the Rivet, they with the
Pen of their
Hammer batter and spread the flat end of the Shank over the Hole, as was shewn
Numb. 2.
fol. 24.25.
Sir
Henry Wotton's Elements of Architecture, Quarto.
These
Books are all Printed in English: But there are many others extant in several other Languages, of which
Vitruvius is the chief: For from his
Book the rest are generally derived; as
Philip Le Orm, Ditterlin, Marlois, and many others, which being difficult to be had among
Book-sellers, and these sufficient for information, I shall omit till another opportunity.
An Explanation of
Terms used in
Carpentry.
A
ADz, Plate 8. B § 2.
Arch, Any work wrought Circular,
[...] the top part of some Window-frames, the top of some great Gates, the Roof of Vaults,
&c.
Architrave, See Numb. 6. Plate 6.1. and Plate 6. A. § 1.
Ax, Numb. 7. Plate 8. A.
B
BAck or
Hip-molding. The backward Hips or
Valley-Rafters in the way of an Angle for the back part of a Building.
Bannister, Numb. 8. Plate 11.
ggg.
Base, is commonly the Bottom of a Cullumn. See Numb. 6. Plate 6.
h. and Plate 7. B.
[Page 157]Batement, To abate or waste a piece of Stuff, by forming of it to a designed purpose. Thus instead of asking how much was cut off such a piece of Stuff, Carpenters ask what
Batement that piece of Stuff had.
Batter, The side, or part of the side of a Wall, or any Timber that bulges from its bottom or Foundation, is said to
Batter, or
hang over the Foundation.
Battlement, A flat Roof or Platform to walk
[...] ▪ But Battlements are more properly Walls
[...] about the Platform to inclose it, as is seen
[...] Towers for defence; part of the Battlement
[...]eing Breast high that Musquetiers may shoot over it, the other part Man high, to secure Men from the shot of their Enemies.
Bauk, A piece of Fir unslit, from four to ten Inches square, and of many lengths.
Bear, Timber is said to
Bear at its whole length, when neither a Brick-wall, or Posts,
&c. stand between the ends of it. But if either a Brick-wall or Posts,
&c. be Trimmed up to that Timber, than it is said to Bear only at the distance between the Brick-wall or Post, and either end of the Timber. Thus Carpenters ask what
Bearing such a piece of Timber has? The answer is 10, 12, 15,
&c. Foot, according to the length of the whole Timber, or else according to the distance between either end of the Timber, and a
Bearer, viz. a Post or Brick-wall that is Trimmed up between the two ends of a piece of Timber, to shorten its
Bearing.
Bond, When Workmen say make good Bond, they mean fasten the two or more pieces of Timber well together, either with Tennanting and Mortessing, or Duff-tailing,
&c.
[Page 158]Binding Joysts, See Trimmers, or Plate 10.
bbb.
Brace, See Plate 11.
bbb.
Brad, is a Nail to
Floor Rooms with, they are about the size of a Ten-penny Nail, but have not their heads made with a shoulder over their shank, as other Nails, but are made pretty thick towards the upper end, that the very top of it may be driven into, and buried in the Board they nail down, so that the tops of these Brads will not catch (as the Heads of Nails would) the Thrums of the Mops when the
Floor is washing. You may see them at most Ironmongers.
Break in, Carpenters with their Ripping Chissel do often
Break in to Brick-walls; that is they cut holes, but indeed more properly break the Bricks by force, and make their hole to their size and form.
Bressummer, See Plate 11. CC, D, FF,
hh.
Bring up, A Term most used amongst Carpenters, when they discourse
Bricklayers; and then they say,
Bring up the Foundation so high,
Bring up such a Wall,
Bring up the Chimnies,
&
[...]. which is as much as to say, Build the Foundation so high, Build the Wall, Build the Chimnies,
&c.
Butment, The piece of Ground in the Yard marked G, in Plate 10. is a
Butment from the rest of the Ground-plot.
Buttress, That stands on the outside a Wall to support it.
C.
CAmber, A piece of Timber cut Arching,
[...] as when a weight considerable, shall be s
[...] upon it, it may in length of time be reduced
[...] a straight▪
[Page 159]Cantilevers, Pieces of Wood framed into the Front or other sides of an House to sustain the Molding and Eaves over it.
Carcass, is (as it were) the Skelleton of an House, before it is Lath'd and Plastered.
Cartouses. Ornamented
Corbels.
Cleer Story Window, Windows that have no Transum in them.
Commander, See Numb. 7. Plate 8. K. and § 10.
Coping over, is a sort of hanging over, but not square to its upright, but Bevelling on its under side, till it end in an edge.
Corbel, A piece of Timber set under another piece of Timber, to discharge its Bearing.
Crab, The Engine described Plate 9. E. and BCD several of its Appurtenances,
viz. BCC
Snatch Blocks. D
Levers. Its Office is to draw heavy Timber to a considerable height.
Crow, See Plate 8. L. its Office is to remove heavy Timber, and therefore for strength is made of Iron.
Crown Post, See Plate 11. H. Also the
King-Piece, or
Joggle-Piece.
D
DIscharge, A Brick-wall or a Post trim'd up to a piece of Timber over charg'd for its Bearing, is a Discharge to that Bearing.
Dormer, Plate 11. QR.
Double Quarters, See
Quarter.
Draft, The Picture of an intended Building discribed on Paper, whereon is laid down the devised Divisions and Partitions of every
Room in its due proportion to the whole Building, See Numb. 7. § 13.
Drag, A
Door is said to
Drag when either by its ill Hanging on its Hinges, or by the ill boarding of the
Room, the bottom edge of the
Door[Page 160] rides (in its sweep) upon the
Floor. See § 19.
Dragon-beams, are two strong Braces or Struts that stands under a Bressummer, meeting in a an angle upon the shoulder of the
King-piece. In Plate 11,
ii are
Dragon beams.
Draw knife, described Plate 8. E and § 5.
Draw Pins, described Plate 8. F and § 6.
Drug, described Plate 9. E and § 12.
E
ENter, When Tennants are put into Mortesses, they are said to Enter the Mortesses.
Enterduce, or
Entertise, described Plate 11. CC.
F.
FEather-edge, Boards, or Planks, that have one edge thinner than another are called
Feather-edge stuff.
Fir-Pole, A sort of stuff cut off of the Fir-tree, small and long, commonly from 10 to 16 Foot. They are sometimes used in slight Buildings, to serve instead of Bauks and Quarters.
Flyers, are Stairs made of an Oblong square Figure, whose fore and backsides are parallel to each other, and so are their ends; the second of these
Flyers stands parallel behind the first, the third behind the second, and so are said to fly off from one another.
Floor, in
Carpentry, it is as well taken for the Fram'd work of Timber, as the Boarding over it.
Foot-pace, is a part of a pair of Stairs, whereon after four or six steps you arrive to a broad place, where you make two or three paces before you ascend another step; thereby to ease the legs in ascending the rest of the steps.
Furrings, The making good of the Rafters Feet in the Cornice.
Gain, The bevelling shoulder of a Joyst, or other Stuff: It is used for the Lapping of the end of a Joyst,
&c. upon a Trimmer or Girder, and then the thickness of the shoulder is cut into the Trimmer also Bevilling upwards, that it may just receive that
Gain, and so the Joyst and Timber lye even and level upon their superficies. This way of working is used in a Floor or Hearth.
Girder, described Plate 10 QQ.
Ground Plate, described Plate 11 A.
Ground Plate, The piece of Ground a Building is to be erected upon.
H.
HAng over, See
Batter.
Hips, described Plate 11. EE, They are also called
Principal Rafters, and
Sleepers.
Hook-pin, described Plate 8. F.
I.
JAck, described Plate 8. M. An Engine used for the removing and commodious placing of great Timber.
Jack-Plane, called so by Carpenters, but is indeed the same that Joyners call the
Fore-Plane. See Numb. 4. § 2. and Plate 4. B. 1.
Jaums, Door Posts are so called: So are the upright outer Posts of a Window frame, See Plate 11.
aaaa, cc, nn.
Joggle-piece, See Plate 11. H.
Joysts, See Plate 10.
aaaa.
[Page 162]Juffers, Stuff, about 4 or 5 inches square, and of several Lengths.
K.
KIng-piece, See
Joggle-piece.
Kerf, See
Explanation of Terms in Numb. 6.
Knee, A piece of Timber growing angularly, or crooked, that is, a great Branch shooting out near the top of the Trunk of the Tree, and is so cut that the Trunk and the Branch make an angle; as in Plate 11. EL, being made
[...] of one piece of stuff: It is called a
Knee-piece ▪ or
Knee-rafter.
L.
LAnding-place, is the uppermost Step of a
[...] of Stairs,
viz. The Floor of the Room
[...] ascend upon.
Skirts, Projecting of the Eaves.
Level, See Plate 8. G and § 7.
Lever, See Plate 9. D.
Lintel, In Brick-buildings Carpenters lay
[...] long piece of Timber over the Peers, to Trim with the Window-Frame; as well to bear the thickness of the Brick-wall above it, as to make Bond with the sides of the Walls.
Long-plane, The same that Joyners call a
Joy
[...] ter. See Numb. 4. B. 2. § 4.
Luthern, See
Dormer.
M.
MOdillon, See
Cantelever.
Molding, Moldings are stuck upon th
[...] edges of stuf
[...] to Ornament it: As on Chimn
[...] pieces, the inner edges of Window-fram
[...] Shelves,
&c. See
Numb. 4. § 9.
[Page 163]Munnion, the upright Post that divide the several Lights in a Window-frame, are called
Munnions, See Plate 11.
qqq.
N.
NEwel, the upright post that a pair of Winding-stairs are turned about.
P.
PItch, The Angle a Gable-end is set to, is called the
Pitch of the Gable-end.
Planchier, An Ornament to which the Cornice is fastned.
Plate. A piece of Timber upon which some considerable weight is framed, is called a Plate. Hence
Ground-Plate, Plate 11. A.
Window-plate, &c.
Plumb-line, described Plate 8. H § 8.
Posts, See
Principal-Posts.
Prick-Posts, Posts that are framed into
Bressummers, between Principal
[...]Posts, for the strengthning of the Carcass.
Principal-Posts, The corner Posts of a Carcass, See Plate 11. B. B.
Profile, The same with
Ground-Plot.
Projecture, is a jetting over the upright of a Building: Thus
Balconies project into the Street.
Puncheons, Short pieces of Timber placed under some considerable weight to support it.
Pudlaies, Pieces of Stuff to do the Office of Hand-Spikes.
Purlins, See Plate 11. NN.
Q.
QUarters are
single and
double. Single Quarters are Sawen stuff, two Inches thick, and four Inches broad. The
Double Quarters are sawen
[...] Four Inches square.
[Page 164]Quartering, In the Front of the third Story in Plate 11. All the Work, except the Principal Posts, Jaums, and Window-frames,
viz. the upright Triming, and the Braces is called
Quartering.
Quirk, A piece taken out of any regular Ground-plot, or Floor: For example, the whole Ground-plot ABCD. in Plate 10. is a regular Ground-plot. But if the piece K be taking out of it, K shall be a
Quirk.
R.
RAster, See Plate 11.
cccc.
Rail, Rails stand over and under Bannisters of
Balconies, Stair-Cases,
&c.
Raiser, is a Board set on edge under the Fore-side of a step.
Raising-piece, Pieces that lye under the Beams upon Brick or Timber by the side of the House.
Rellish, See
Projecture.
Return, Either of the adjoining sides of the Front of an House, or Ground-plot, is called a
Return-side, as in Plate 10. the Front is AB, the
Return-sides to this Front is AC and BD.
Ridge, the meeting of the Rafters on bot
[...] sides the House is called the
Ridge.
Ripping-Chissel, See Plate 8. D § 4.
Roof, The Covering of a House: But the word is used in Carpentery for the Triming work of the Covering.
S.
SCribe, See Number 6. in
Explanation of Terms.
Shake, Such stuff as is crackt either with the heat of the Sun, or the droughth of the wind, is called
Shaken Stuff.
[Page 165]Shingles, Small pieces of Wood used to cover Houses with, instead of Tiles or Slates.
Shreadings, See Plate 11. the lower end of the Principal Rafters markt
rr are called
Shreadings, or
Furrings.
Sleepers, The same with
Purlins.
Snatch-blocks, See Plate 9. BCC.
Socket-Chissel, Described Plate 8. and § 3.
Soils, or
Sells, are either
Ground-Sells described Plate 11. A. or
Window Sells, which are the bottom Pieces of Window Frames.
Stair-Case, The inclosure of a pair of Stairs, whether it be with Walls, or with Walls and Railes and Bannisters,
&c.
Stancheons, See
Puncheons.
Strut, See
Dragon-beam.
Summer, In Plate 10. PP is a
Summer, where into the Girders are Tennanted.
T.
TEn-Foot-Rod, See § 13.
Transom, The Piece that is fram'd a-cross a double Light-window. See Plare 11. PP.
Trim, When workmen fit a piece into other Work, they say they
Trim in a piece.
Trimmers, See Plate 10.
bbbb.
Truss, See
King-piece, or
Joggle-piece.
Tusk, A Bevel shoulder, made to strengthen the Tennant of Joyst, which is let into the Girder.
Wall-Plate, In Plate 10. AC, BD and NO are
Wall-Plates.
Thus much of
Carpentry. The next
Exercises will (God willing) be upon the Art of
Turning, Soft Wood, Hard Wood, Ivory, Brass, Iron, &c. With several Inventions of
Oval-work▪ Rose-work, Rake-work, Angular-work, &c.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works. Applied to the ART of
TURNING.
Of
Turning.
AS by placing one Foot of a pair of Compasses on a Plane, and moving about the other Foot or point, describes on that Plane a Circle with the moving point; so any Substance, be it
Wood, Ivory, Brass, &c. pitcht steddy upon two points (as on an
Axis) and moved about on that
Axis, also describes a Circle Concentrick to the
Axis: And an Edge-Tool set steddy to that part of the outside of the aforesaid Substance that is nearest the
Axis, will in a Circumvolution of that Substance, cut off all the parts of Substance that lies farther off the
Axis, and make the outside of that Substance also Concentrick to the
Axis. This is a brief Collection, and indeed the whole Sum of
Turning.
Now, as there is different Matter, or Substance, to be
Turned, so there is also different Ways, and different Tools to be used in
Turning each different Matter.
[Page 168]The different Matters are
Soft Wood, Hard Wood, Ivory, Brass, Iron, &c. each of which (when I have described the Turners Tools for soft Wood) I shall discourse upon. But,
§ I. Of the
Lathe.
THe
Lathe is described in
Plate 12. A. This Machine is so vulgarly known, that tho' it cannot be described in Draft, so as all its parts shall appear at one single View, yet enough of it to give you the Names of its several Members, and their Uses are represented,
viz.
aaaa The
Legs or
Stiles.
bb The
Cheeks or
Sides.
cc The
Puppets.
d The
Screw.
d The
Pike.
e The
Rest.
f The Handle of the
Screw.
g The Tennants of the
Puppets,
h The
Wedge.
i The
Treddle.
k The
Cross-Treddle.
l The
Pole.
m The
String.
n The
Horn.
¶ 1. Of the
Legs, or
Stiles.
THe
Legs, or
Stiles, are commonly about two Foot and ten Inches high, and are set perpendicularly upright; having each of them a Tennant on its upperend, of the thickness the two
Cheeks are to stand assunder: And on either side the Shoulder of these two
Tennants, is laid one of the
Cheeks close to the sides of the
Tennants, and so pinned close to the
Tennant, as
[Page]
[figure]
[Page 169] was taught
Numb. 5. § 17. But a steddier and more secure way, is to have a strong Iron Screw made with a square Shank near the Head, that when it enters into a square hole made fit to it in the hithermost
Cheek, it may not twist about, but by the Turning about of an Iron Nut, upon the fore-end of the Screw, the Nut shall draw the two Cheeks close to the two sides of the
Tennants, or the upper ends of the
Legs.
¶ 2. Of the
Cheeks.
AS I told you, the Legs are to be set up directly perpendicular, so the
Cheeks are to be fastned directly Horizontally upon them: And the
Legs and
Cheeks are to be fastned with
Braces to the Floor, and other parts of the Room the
Lathe stands in, according to the convenience of the Room for fastning, that the whole
Lathe may stand as steedy and solid as may be. For if with
Turning large Work the strength of the Tread should make the
Lathe tremble, you will not be able to make true and neat Work; but the Tool will job into softer parts of the Stuff, and fly off where a Knot or other harder parts of the Stuff comes to the Tool.
¶ 3. Of the
Puppets.
THe
Puppets are square pieces of Wood, of a Substance convenient to the light or heavy work they intend to
Turn: And
Turnners will rather have their
Puppets too strong than too weak; because, though the
Puppets be very strong, yet they can turn light work with them; whereas if they be weak they cannot turn Heavy work with them: For the weight of heavy unequal tempered Stuff running about, will be apt both to shake the
Puppets, and loosen the
[Page 170] small hole of the
Wedge in the
Tennant; by either of which Inconveniences the Work in the
Lathe may tremble, as aforesaid.
And though no size for the height of the
Puppets can be well asserted, because of the several Diameters of Work to be
Turned, yet Workmen generally covet to have their
Puppets as short as they well can, to bear their Work off the
Cheeks of the
Lathe, because these
Puppets stand in the firmer, and are less subject to loosen. But then, if the Diameters of the work be large, the
Puppets may be too short to
Turn that work in: For the
Pikes of the
Puppets must stand somewhat more than half the Diameter of the Work above the superficies of the
Cheeks. Therefore
Turners have commonly two or three pair of
Puppets to fit one
Lathe, and always strive to use the shortest they can to serve their Work, unless the shortness of the
Legs of the
Lathe, makes the work fall too low for the pitch of the Work-man that is to work at the
Lathe. Therefore in the making of the
Lathe, the height of the
Legs with relation to the intended Work, and height of the Work-man, are to be well considered.
At the lower end of these
Puppets are made two
Tennants, of such a thickness, that they may easily slide in the
Grove between the two
Cheeks, and so long, that a
Mortess through it of the length of the
Cheeks depth, and a sufficient strength of Wood below it may be contained. Into this
Mortess is fitted a Tapering-
Wedge, somewhat less at the fore end, and bigger at the hinder end than the
Mortess, that as it is forced into the
Mortess with a
Mallet, or a
Maul, it may draw the bottom Shoulder of the
Puppet close and firmly down upon the
Cheeks, that they may neither joggle or tremble in working.
UPon the Right Hand
Puppet on the out side near the top of it, is hung the Tip-end of an
Horn with its Tip downwards, to hold Oyl in, and ought to have a Wooden round
Cover to fit into it, that neither Chips or Dirt get in to spoil the Oyl; and in the handle of the
Cover should be fitted a wooden
Butten, which may serve for an
Handle to the
Cover: And through this
Butten should be fastned an Iron Wyer, to reach almost to the bottom of the
Horn: This Wyer stands always in the Oyl, that so oft as the Workman has occasion to oyl the Centers of the Work, to make his Work slip about the easier, he takes the wooden
Cover by the
Button, Wyer and all, and with the end of the Wyer, oyls his Center-holes, and pops his Wyer and
Cover again into the
Horn against he has occasion to use it the next time.
¶ 5. Of the
Pikes and
Screw.
NEar the upper end of one of these
Puppets is fastned a strong Iron
Pike, but its point is made of tempered Steel: And near the upper end of the other
Puppet is fitted an Iron
Screw quite through a
Nut in the
Puppet, whose point is also made of Temper'd Steel. This Iron
Pike in one
Puppet, and the
Screw in the other
Puppet are so fitted into the
Puppets, that their Shanks lye in a straight Line with one another, and both their points lie also in that straight Line pointing to one another: And in the Head of the Iron
Screw is a Hole where into is fitted an Iron
Handle about seven or eight Inches long, with a round
Knob at each end of it that it slip
[Page 172] not through the hole in the Head. This Iron
Handle is to turn about the
Screw forward or backward as your purpose shall require.
Upon the points of this
Screw and
Pike the Centers of the Work are pitcht, and afterwards screwed with the
Screw hard, and so far into the Stuff, that it may not slip off the points in working, especially if it be soft Wood, and the work large and heavy.
Also, near the upper end of these
Puppets, upon that side the Workman stands when he works, the Wood of the
Puppets is wrought away to square flat shoulders somewhat below the
Pikes, that the
Rest may (if occasion be) lye near the
Pikes, and bear steddy upon the
Shoulders.
¶ 6. Of the
Rest.
THe
Rest is a square piece of Stuff about an Inch, or an Inch and half thick, and two Inches, or two and an half broad, and somewhat longer than the distance between the
Puppets. Its Office is to rest the Tool upon, that it may lie in a steddy position while the Workman us
[...] it.
¶ 7. Of the
Side-Rest.
BUt besides this
Rest, Turnners have another
Rest, called the
Side-rest. This they use when they
Turn the flat sides of Boards; because the flat sides of Boards standing athwart the
Pikes, and this
Rest standing also athwart the
Pikes, they can the more conveniently rest their Tool upon it. It is marked
e in plate 1
[...]. and is in the
Plate disjunct from the
Lathe; as well because it and the Common
Rest cannot both together be exprest in Picture, as also because it is made to take off and put on as occasion requires.
[Page 173]The
Rest is marked
a, and is a piece of an Oaken plank, or Elm plank, about two Inches think, and stands so high above the
Cheeks of the
Lathe as the
points of the
Pikes do, or sometimes a little higher: Its Breadth is about a Foot, or more, or less, as the Work requires, or the Workman fancies. The Bottom of it is firmly nailed to one side of a Quarter of Oak, or Elm, of about three Inches square, and two Foot, or two Foot and an half long, close to one end, as you see in the Figure at
b, so as the
Rest stand upright to the piece of Quarter. This piece of Quarter is as a
Tennant to slide into a square Iron Collar marked
e; this square Iron Collar is made so long as to reach through the depth of the
Cheeks of the
Lathe, and to receive the Quarter or Tennant thrust through it above the
Cheeks, and a
Wedge under the
Cheeks marked
d, which
Wedge (when stiff knock'd up) draws the
Tennant strong and firmly down to the
Cheeks, and consequently keeps the
Side-rest steddy on any part of the
Cheeks, according as you slide the
Collar forwards or backwards towards either
Pike, or as you thrust the
Rest nearer or farther to and from the
Pikes.
Some
Turnners for some Work, instead of a plank for this
Rest, fasten to one end of the Quarter or
Tennant, a long Iron with a round Cilindrick
Socket in it, as at the Figure marked
f in Plate 13,
a is the
Socket of about an Inch, or an Inch and an half Diameter, to reach within two or three Inches as high as the
Pikes, and into this
Socket they put a long round Iron
Shank, as in Figure
g of the same
Plate, a is the
Shank, and at the top of this
Shank is made the
Rest, marked
b. This
Shank (I say) slips easily into the
Socket, that it may be raised, or let down, as occasion requires, and by the
[Page 174] help of a
Screw through the
Socket at
e, may be fastned at that length.
The
Rest, (by reason of its Round
Shank) may be also turned with its upper edge more or less oblique or athwart the Work, or else parallel to the Work, according as the purpose may require.
Near one end of the
Rest is fitted and fastned a piece of Wood about an Inch square, and ten or twelve Inches long: This piece of wood is fitted stiff into a square Hole or Mortess made in the
Puppet, a little above the
Shoulder for the
Rest, to set the
Rest to any distance from th
[...]Pikes, which, with the ends of wooden
Screws entred into wooden
Nuts on the further side of the
Puppet, and coming through against the
Rest keeps the
Rest from being thrust nearer to the work when the Workman is working.
¶ 8. Of the
Treddle and
Cross-Treddle.
ABout the middle between the ends, is placed a wooden
Treddle about two Inche
[...] and an half broad, an Inch thick, and three Foot long, and sometimes three and an half,
[...] four Foot long. The hinder end of it is fastned to the Floor, with a piece of Leather (sometimes a piece of the Upper-leather of an old Shoe, which piece of Leather is nailed to the under-side of the hinder end of the
Treddle, [...] as to leave Leather enough beyond the end
[...] the
Treddle to nail down upon the Floor; which
Treddle being thus nailed down, will move upwards, as the Spring of the
Pole draws up the
String; the
String being also fastned to the fore end of the
Treddle.
[Page 175]The hinder end of the
Treddle is nailed down about a foot, or a Foot and an half behind the
Lathe, and about the middle between both the
Legs, so that the fore-end of the
Treddle reaches beyond the fore-side of the
Lathe, about a Foot and an half, or two Foot. And Note, that the farther the Fore-end of the
Treddle reaches out beyond the Fore-side of the
Lathe, the greater will the sweep of the Fore-end of the
Treddle be, and consequently it will draw the more
String down; and the more
String comes down at one
Tread, the more Revolutions of the Work is made at one
Tread, and therefore it makes the greater riddance of the Work.
But then again, if the Fore-end of the
Treddle reach too far before the Fore-side of the
Lathe, it may draw the end of the
Pole so low as to brake it: And it will also be the harder to
Tread down, because the power commanding (which is the weight of the
Tread) lies so far from the weight to be commanded, which is the strength of the
Pole, augmented by the distance that the end of the
Treddle hath from the Work in the
Lathe; so that you may see, that the nearer the Fore-end of the
Treddle lies to the Perpendicular of the Work in the
Lathe, the easier the
Tread will be: And some
Turners that
Turn altogether small Work, have the Fore-end of the
Treddle placed just under their work; so that their
String works between the
Cheeks of the
Lathe: But then the Sweep of the
Treddle being so small, the
Pole draws up but a small length of
String, and consequently makes the fewer Revolutions of the Work in one
Tread, which hinders the riddance of the Work; unless with every Spring of the
Pole, they should lift their Treading Leg so high, as to tire it
[Page 176] quickly with bringing it down again, after it is raised to so uncommodious a position.
This
Treddle hath a square Notch in the middle of the further end, about an Inch and an half wide, and two Inches long, that the end of the
String may be wound either off or on the Wood on either side the Notch, to lengthen or shorten the
String, as the different Diameters of the Work shall require.
About the midde of the
Treddle is fixed a round Iron
Pin about half an Inch in Diameter; so as to stand upright about an Inch and an half, or two Inches long above the
Treddle. And under the
Cheeks is also fixed down the
Cross-Treddle, which is such another piece of Wood as the
Treddle is, but longer or shorter, according to the length of the
Lathe: And in the middle of the Breadth of the
Cross-Treddle, is made several holes all a-row to receive the Iron
Pin set upright in the
Treddle. These holes are commonly boared about two or three Inches assunder, that the
Pin or the
Treddle may be put into any one of them, according as the
String is to be placed nearer to or further off either end of the
Lathe.
THe
Pole is commonly made of a
Fir-pole ▪ and is longer or shorter, or bigger or smaller, according to the weight of the Work the Workman designs to
Turn: For the thicker the
Pole is, the harder must the
Tread be to bring it down; and for this reason, if the
Pole prove too strong for their common or continued Work, they will weaken it by cutting away (with a Draw-knife, described
Numb. 7. Plate 8. E, and § 5.) part of the substance off the upper and under sides of the Pole.
The thick end of this
Pole is nailed (or indeed rather pinned) up to some Girder, or other Timber in the Ceiling of the Room, with one single Nail or a Pin, that the
Pole may move upon that Nail, or Pin, as on a Center, and its thin end pass from one
Puppet to the other, as the Work may require. And at about a distance or more, is also nailed up to some Joysts, or other Timbers of the Ceiling, two
Cheeks of a convenient strength, and at the lower end of these two
Cheeks is nailed a Quarter or Batten to bear the
Pole, though the weight of a
Tread be added to it, as you may see at
nn in Plate 12.
¶ 10. Of the
Side-Rest.
BUt it sometimes happens that the Ceiling of the Work-room is not high enough for the
Pole to play upwards and downwards; therefore in such case, they place the thin end of the
Pole at some considerable distance off the
Lathe, either before or behind it, and so make the Spring of the
Pole Horizantal towards the
Lathe, conveying and guiding the
String from the
Pole to the Work by throwing it over a
[Page 178]Rowler, moving on two Iron
Center-pins fastned at both ends, and placed parallel to the
Cheeks of the
Lathe, above the Work as high as they can; and thus every
Tread draws the
Rowler about: But should the
Rowler not move about upon these Irons Pins, the
String every
Tread would both cut a Groove in the
Ruler, and fret it self more or less upon the
Rowler.
¶ 11. Of the
Bow.
SOme
Turnners that work light Work, such as
Cane-heads, Ink-horns, &c. for which they need scarce remove the
Puppets oft their
Lathe, use a common
Bow, such as Archers use. The middle of this
Bow they fasten over Head, with its
String Horizontally downwards, and in the middle of that
String they fasten another
String perpendicularly downwards, whose other end they fasten to the
Treddle, and the
String wound round their Work brings it about.
¶ 12. Of the
Great Wheel.
BUt when
Turnners work heavy Work, such as the Pole and
Tread will not Command, they use the
Great Wheel. This Wheel is so commonly known, that I shall need give you no other Description of it than the Figure it self, which you may see in
Plate 14. a. It is turned about with one, and sometimes with two Iron
Handles, according as the weight of the Work may require.
Its
String hath both its ends strong and neatly fastned together, not with a Knot, but lapt over one another about three Inches in length▪ and so is firmly whipt about with small Gut, that it may the easier pass over the narrow
Groove in the edge of the
Rowler. This
String is laid in the
Groove made on the edge of the
[Page 179] Wheel, and also in the
Groove of the Work. But before it is laid upon both, one part of the
String is lapt over and crosses the other, and the
String receives the Form of a Figure of Eight (only one of its Bows or Circles becomes no bigger than the
Groove in the Work, and the other as big as the
Groove in the
Wheel.)
Then the whole Frame wherein the
Wheel is fixed is removed farther off the
Lathe, that the
String may draw tight upon the Work.
The reason why the
String thus crosses it self, is, because it will touch and gird more upon the
Groove of the Work, and consequently (as was said before ¶ 14.) will the better command the Work about.
The manner of Turning this
Wheel, is as the manner of Turning other
Wheels with
Handles.
Besides the commanding heavy Work about, the Wheel rids Work faster off than the Pole can do; because the springing up of the Pole makes an intermission in the running about of the Work, but with the
Wheel the Work runs always the same way; so that the Tool need never be off it, unless it be to examine the work as it is doing.
When the Wheel is used, its Edge stands athwart the
Cheeks of the
Lathe.
¶ 13. Of the
Treddle-Wheel.
THis is a
Wheel made of a round Board of about two Foot and an half Diameter, conveniently to stand under the
Cheeks of the
Lathe. It also hath a
Groove on its Edge for the
String to run in; it hath an Iron
Axis with a
Crook or
Crank at one end: And on this
Crook is slipt the Noose of a
Leather Thong, which having its other end fastned to a
Treddle, does, by keeping
[Page 180] exact time in
Treads, carry it swiftly about without intermission.
But the length of the
Thong must be so fitted, that when the
Wheel stands still, and the
Crook at the end of the
Axis hangs downwards, the end of the
Treddle to which the
Thong is fastned may hang about two or three Inches off the Ground: For then, giving the
Wheel a small turn with the Hand, till the
Crook rises to the highest, and passes a little beyond it; if just then (I say) the Workman gives a quick
Tread upon the
Treddle to bring the
Crook down again with a jerk, that
Tread will set it in a motion for several revolutions; and then if he observes to make his next
Tread just when the
Crook comes about again to the same position, it will continue the motion, and cause of the motion, and keep the
Wheel always running the same way, if he punctually times his
Treads.
The
Treddel Wheel is used for small work only, as not having strength enough to carry heavy Work about, such as
Cane-heads, Small Boxes, &c. and it is fitted below the
Cheeks between the
Puppets, as the
Bow is above.
Besides these Inventions to carry about the Work in the
Lathe, there are many more; as with a great
Iron Wheel, having Teeth on its edge, which Teeth are to fall into an Iron
Nut upon an Iron
Axis, pitcht upon the
Pikes of the
Puppets of the
Lathe, or fitted into
Collars, &c.
Also, for very heavy Work, as Guns, great Mortars,
&c. Wheels turn'd with
Wind, Water, or
Horses, to carry the Work about. Of which more in their proper places.
UPon the thin end of the
Pole is wound a considerable Bundle of
String, that as a
Mandrel requires to be bigger than ordinary, or the Work heavier, they may unwind so much of the
String as will compass the
Mandrel twice, or (if the Work be heavy) thrice; the easier to carry it about.
This
String is made of the Guts of Beasts (most commonly of Sheep, and spun round of several thicknesses, of which the Workman chuses such sizes as are aptest for his Work; for large and heavy Work, very thick, but for small and light work, thin: And there are several reasons for his Choice; for a thin
String will be too weak for heavy Work; but if it were not too weak for heavy work, it would be apt to mark soft wood more than a thick
String would, when they are forc'd to shift the
String, and let it run upon the Work. Besides, a thin
String (though it were strong enough) would not so well bring heavy Work about; because being small, but little of the
String touches the wood to command it, unless they wind it the oftner about the Work, which both takes up time, and hazards the breaking of the
String, by the fretting of the several twists against one another.
Now a thick
String is uncommodious for small work; because having a strength and stubbornness proportionable to its size, it will not comply closely to a piece of Work of small Diameter, but will be apt to slip about it, unless both
Pole and
Tread be very strong; and then, if the Center-holes be not very deep, and the
Pikes fill them not very tight, and the
Puppets also not very well fixt, the strength of the
[Page 182] String will alter the Center-holes; especially, when the work is upon soft Wood, or else it will endanger the breaking the work in its weakest place.
¶ 15. Of the
Seat.
PArallel to the
Cheeks on the inside the
Lathe is fitted a Seat, about two and an half Inches square, and the whole length of the
Lathe; having an Iron Pin fastned on either end the underside of it: It lies upon two
Bearers of Wood, that are fastned athwart the outer sides the
Legs, (or else to set it higher) the outer ends of the
Cheeks, according to the height of the person that works at the
Lathe. These Bearers reach in length so far inwards, as that they may be capable to bear the Seat so far off from the
Lathe, as in the Diameter of the
Work they intend to
Turn in the
Lathe, and also the bulk of the Workman that stands between the
Lathe and it, may be contained.
It is not called a Seat, because it is so; but because the
Workman places the upper part of his
Buttocks against it, that he may stand the steddier to his
Work, and consequently guide his Foot the firmer and exacter.
The two
Bearers have several Holes made in them, from within sixteen Inches off the
Lathe, to the ends of them, that the Iron Pins fastned in the ends of the
Seat, may be removed nearer or farther off the
Lathe, according to the greatness or smallness of the Diameter of their Work.
Having thus described the parts of a Common
Lathe, I shall now follow with their other Tools also.
GOuges are marked BB in
Plate 15. They do the Office of
Fore-plains in
Joynery, and the
Jack-plains in
Carpentry, and serve only to take off the Irregularities the
Hatchet, or sometimes the
Draw-knife leaves, after the work is hewed or drawn pretty near a Round with either of them: And therefore as the
Fore-plain is made with a Corner-edge▪ only to take off the Irregularities of a Board, so the
Gouge that it may also take off the Irregularities or Extuberancies that lye farthest from the
Axis of the Work, and also frame pretty near the hollow Moldings required in the
Work, precede the
Smoothing-Chissels. And that the
Gouge may the more commodiously and effectually do it, the Blade of this Tool is formed about half round to an edge, and the two extream ends of this half round a little sloped off towards the middle of it, that a small part about the middle may the easier cut off the prominencies that are not concentrick to the
Axis, and so bring the
Work into a Method of Formation.
The hollow edge is ground upon the Corner of a
Grind-stone, which in short time wears the outside of that Corner to comply and form with the hollow of the
Gouge. It is afterwards set upon a round
Whet-stone, that fits the hollow of the edge, or is somewhat less. But they do not set their
Gouges or
Chissels as (I told you in
Numb. 4. § 10.) the Joyners do; for
Turnners Tools being somewhat unweldy, by reason of their size, and long Handles, they lay the
Blade of the
Gouge with its convex side upon the
Rest of the
Lathe; and so with the
Whet-stone in their right hand they rub upon the
Basil the
Grind-stone made, and as they rub, they often turn
[Page 184] another part of the hollow of the edge to bear upon the round of the
Whet-stone, till they have with the
Whet-stone taken off the roughness of the
Grind-stone.
Of these
Gouges there are several sizes,
viz. from a quarter of an Inch, to an whole Inch, and sometimes for very large
Work, two Inches over.
The
Handles to these
Gouges (and indeed to all other
Turning Tools) are not made as the
Handles of
Joyners or
Carpenters Tools are, but tapering towards the end, and so long that the
Handle may reach (when they use it) under the Arm-pit of the
Work-man, that he may have more stay and steddy management of the Tool.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works. Applied to the ART of TURNING.
§ III. Of Flat Chissels.
THE
Flat Chissels are marked CC in
Plate 15. These do the Office of
Smoothing Plains in
Joyning and
Carpentry; for coming after the
Gouges they cut off the prominent Risings that the
Gouges leaves above the hollow.
The edges of these
Flat Chissels are not ground to such a
Basil as the
Joyners Chissels are, which are made on one of the Flat sides of the
Chissels, but are
Basil'd away on both the flat sides; so that the edge lyes between both the sides in the middle of the
Tool: And therefore either sides of the
Tool may indifferently be applied to the Work; which could not well be, should the edge lye on one of the sides of the
Tool: Because, if they should apply the
Basil side of the
Tool to the Work, the thickness of the
Basil would bear the edge of the
Tool off: And should they apply that side of the
Tool the edge lyes on to the
Work, the swift coming about of the
Work would (where a small irregularity of
[Page 186] Stuff should happen) draw or jobb the suddain edge into the Stuff, and so dawk it; which if the Stuff be already small enough, would now be too small, because in
Turnings, all Irregularities must be wrought smooth down.
Of those
Flat Chissels there are several sizes,
viz. from a quarter of an Inch, one Inch, two Inches, to three Inches broad, according to the largness of the
Work.
These are Set with the
Whet-stone as the
Gouges are, only they often turn the
Gouges upon the round side, because they would smoothen all the hollow edge; but these are laid flat upon the Rest, and with a flat
Whet-stone rubbed on the
Basil, as the
Gouge was with the Round.
§ IV. Of
Hooks.
THe
Hook is marked D in
Plate 15. As the
Gouge is used when the Work lyes before the
Workman, viz. parallel to its
Axis, and cuts right forwards, so the
Hook is used when the
Work stands on the right or left side the
Workman, as the flat sides of Boards to be Turned do; and therefore this
Work may be said to lye athwart its
Axis. And the
Hook is made so as to cut on the right or left side a Board, and to take off the extuberances from the plain of the Board. But though this
Tool does the Office of a
Gouge, yet it is more difficult for a
Workman to use than a
Gouge, because it is made thinner and slenderer than a
Gouge, that its edge cutting at a greater Bearing from the
Rest, may the easier come at the Stuff it works upon, and the farther the edge that cuts lyes from the
Rest ▪ the more difficult it is for a
Workman to guide it, because it is then more subject to tremble; especially since (as aforesaid) the edge of the
Hook is and must be thinner than the edge of the
Gouge.
[Page 187]These
Tools, as also the
Gouges, and
Flat-Chissels, are all about ten or twelve Inches long without the Handles.
The
Hooks when they want sharpening cannot be
ground as the
Gouges and
Chissels are; but they must be first softned in the Fire and turned straight, and then brought to an edge, and by heating again red hot turned into its form: Then must it be hardned and tempered as you were taught,
Numb. 3.
fol. 57, 58. Yet do not
Workmen proceed thus with their
Hook every time it grows bluntish, but only when the edge is either by long use, or bad Temper, grown so thick, that this following way will not help them: For they
Whet the outer edge with a
Whet-stone as they do other
Tools. But because they cannot come at the inner edge of the
Hook with a
Whet-stone, unless the
Hook be very wide, and the
Whet-stone very thin, they make use of a piece of Temper'd Steel, as sometimes the
[...] side of a
Chissel, or the back of a
Knife, and so with the edge of the Square, scrape along the hollow edge of the
Hook, and force the edge as much to the outside of the
Hook as they can. Thus
Butchers wear at their Girdles small round Rods of Steel well tempered and polisht, that they may with quick dispatch whet their
Knives upon it, by forcing the edge forwards upon the Blade, or pressing down the Shoulder that hinders the edge Entrance; for their Steels being so well polisht, cannot properly be said to wear away any part of the Shoulder that should hinder the edge from doing its Office.
THe
Grooving Hook is marked E in
Plate 15, and hath its Tooth of different forms, according to the Fashion of the
Groove to be made on the Plain of the Board; for sometime its Tooth hath a flat Edge, sometimes a round Edge, sometimes a point only, and sometimes two points, or other Forms as aforesaid.
Its whole Blade is made much stronger than the
Gouge and
Chissels, and hath the sides of as Edge more obtuse to make it the stronger.
The
Flat Tools work the Boards Flat either to the Plain of the Board, or to a Flat Groove in the Board.
The
Round Edge cuts an half-round hollow in the Board.
The Point cuts a fine Hollow Circle or Swage in the Flat of the Board; and being made Trangular, hath three Edges each, of which cuts the Ridges smooth down that the
Hook left upon the Board.
The
Two-point Grooving-Hook cuts two fi
[...]e hollow Circles or Swages on the Plain of the Board.
The
Grooving-Hooks do not work as the
Hooks do, for the Hooks cut the Wood; but these do but indeed scrape off the Extuberancies, or fre
[...] into the Wood, and therefore they are very seldom used to soft Wood, because its being loose, will not endure scraping without leaving a roughness upon the Work; but hard Wood, or Ivory (for the Reason converted) will.
MAndrels are marked F 1. F 2. F 3. F 4. in
Plate 15. There are different sorts of
Mandrels, and the sizes of them also different, according to the sizes of the Work.
1.
Broad Flat Mandrels marked F 1. in
Plate 15. with three or more little Iron
Pegs, or
Points near the Verge of its Flat: And these are used for the
Turning Flat Boards upon. For the backside of a Board placed Flat upon it, will when screwed up tight between the
Pikes, by help of the Irong
Pegs, remain in its place and position, whilst the Flat side of the Work is working upon.
Behind the Backside of this
Mandrel (and indeed all other
Mandrels) is fitted a long
Shank, or
Rowler, for the
String to be wound about while the Work is
Turning. This
Rowler must be so large in Diameter, that the
String wound about it may command the
Work about. If the
Work be large and heavy, the
Rowler must be bigger than if the
Work be light; for else the
String will not command it about: But if the Diameter of the
Rowler be smaller, the work comes so much swifter about. The
Rowler must also be so long between its
Shoulders, that it may conveniently contain so many Diameters of the
String as shall be necessary to wind about it.
This whole
Mandrel is marked F 1. in
Plate 15.
a. The
Round Flat, or
Face, of the
Mandrel. b. The
Rowler. cc The
Shoulders of the
Rowler▪ ddd The
Pegs.
¶ 2. Of
Pin-Mandrels.
2.
MAndrels are made with a long
Wooden Shank, to fit stiff into a round hole that is made in the Work that is to be
Turned. This
[Page 190]Mandrel is called a
Shank, or
Pin-Mandrel, and is marked F 2. in Plate 15. And if the hole the
Shank is to fit into be very small, and the Work to be fastned on it pretty heavy, then
Turners fasten a round Iron
Shank, or
Pin, of the size of the Hole it is to be fitted into, and fasten their Work upon it. These
Mandrels with Iron
Shanks are used by
Turnners that
Turn Bobbins, or such like Work: Because a
Wooden Shank to fit the small Hole though the work would not be strong enough to carry the work about.
¶ 3. Of
Hollow-Mandrels.
3. THere is another sort of
Mandrels called
Hollow Mandrels, described F 3. Plate 15. It is both a
Hollow-Mandrel, and also used to
Turn hollow
Work in it. This
Mandrel hath but one Center-hole belonging to it,
viz. at the
Rowle
[...] end or Neck; but it hath a
Shank, which supplies the Office of another Center-hole,
a the hollow,
b the
Shank, or
Neck. The
Hollow is made so wide, that the
Work intended to be
Turned hollow in it may fit very stiff into it, and so deep that it may contain the intended
Work.
When it is used, it is pitcht upon the Center at the farther end of the
Rowler, and hath its
Shank put into one of the Holes of the
Joint-Coller described in Plate 13.
fig. G. that will best fit it; which Hole standing directly against the
Pike in the hinder
Puppet, and receiving the
Shank into it, guides the
Mandrel about, as if it were pitcht upon two Centers: And the
Work being forced stiff into the Hollow of this
Mandrel, will be carried about with it, exposing the Fore-side of the work bare and free from the
Joynt-Coller, and not impeded by
Spikes from coming at the
work; so that with the
Hook,
[Page] Grooving-Hook, Gouge, or
Flat-Chissel, according as your
work requires, you may come at it to
Turn your intended Form.
Hollow Mandrels are also used in
Collers that open not with a
Joynt; but then the
Spindle is made of Iron, and hath a
Screw just at its end, upon which is screwed a Block with an hollow, in it, made fit to receive the
work stiff into it.
¶ 4. Of the
Screw-Mandrel.
4. ANother sort of
Mandrel is called the
Screw-Mandrel, and is marked F 4. in Plate 15.
a the
Rowler of the
Mandrel, b. the
Shank, or
Screw, is made of Iron, having its two ends Round, and in the middle between the Round ends a Square the length of the
Rowler, and this Square is fitted stiff into a Square-hole made through the middle of the
Rowler that it turn not about in the Square-hole. In each Flat-end of this Iron
Shank, or
Spindle, is made a Center-hole, wherein the
Pikes of the
Puppets are pitcht when this
Mandrel is used. This Iron
Shank, or
Axis, must be made very straight, and ought to be turned upon the two Center-holes for exactness; because on one of the round ends, or sometimes on both, a Screw, or indeed several Screws of several Diameters is made. That Screw next the end of the
Shank is the smallest,
viz. about three quarters of an Inch over, and takes up in length towards the middle of the
Shank, about an Inch, or an Inch and an half; and so far from the end of the
Shank it is of an equal Diameter all the way; and on this portion of the
Shank is made a
Male-screw of the finest Thread. The next Inch and half (wrought as before) hath another
Male-screw; but about half a quarter of an Inch more in Diameter than the former, and hath its Threads courser. Another
[Page 192] Inch and half hath its Diameter still greater, and its Threads yet courser. And thus you may make the
Shank as long as you will, that you may have the more variety of sizes for
Screws.
These sorts of
Mandrels are made for the making of
Screws to
Boxes, and their
Lids, as shall be shewed in the next Paragraph.
¶ Of
Sockets, or
Chocks, belonging to the Screw-Mandrel.
TO this
Screw-Mandrel belongs so many
Sockets as there are several sizes of
Screws on the
Shank. They are marked F 5. in
Plate 15.
a the
Socket or
Chock: bb, the Wooden
Pin, c the
Stay, dd the
Notch to slip over the
Male-screw.
These
Hollow Sockets have
Female-Screws in them, made before the Notch to slip over the
Male-screw of the
Screw-Mandrel is cut. The manner of making
Female-screws is taught
Numb. 2.
fol. 29, 30, 31. only instead of a
Tap (used there) you use the several and different sizes of
Screws made on the
Screws-Mandrel to do the Office of a
Tap into each respective
Socket; which
Sockets being only made of hard Wood, it will easily perform, though the
Shank, or
Axis be but Iron.
Therefore (as aforesaid) to each of the
Male-screws on the
Screw-Mandrel is fitted such a
Socket, that you may chuse a
Thread Courser or Finer as you please; but this
Female-screw is open, or hath a
Notch on one side of it, that it may slip over the
Male-screw, and the Threads of each other fit into each others
Grooves; and when they are thus fitted to one another, the further or open side of the
Male-screw is gaged in, or pin'd on the
Female-screw with a wooden
Pin thrust through two opposite Holes, made
[Page 193] for that purpose in the
Cheeks of the wooden Sockets, that it shake not.
When the
Treddle comes down in working, and the
Socket is fitted on its proper
Screw, and pinn'd stiff upon it, and the Stay held down to the
Rest of the
Lathe, then will the
Socket, and consequently the
Stay slide farwards upon the
Male-screws; so that a Tool held steddy on any part of the
Stay, and applied to the out or inside of your
Work, that Tools point will describe and cut a Screw, whose Thread shall be of the same fineness that the Screw and the Shank is of.
§ VII. Of
Collers.
THere are several fashion'd
Collers; As the
Joynt-Coller marked G, the
Round-Coller marked H, and the
Coller marked I, in Plate 13.
The
Joynt-Coller is made of two Iron
Cheeks marked
bb, which moving upon a Joint
c at the Bottom, may be set close together, or else opened as the two insides of the
Joynt-Rule Carpenters use to do. On the inner Edge of each
Cheek is formed as many half-round holes or Semi-circles as you please, or the length of the
Cheeks will conveniently admit: These Semicircles are made of different Diameters, that they may fit the
Shanks or
Necks, of different siz'd
Mandrels: And these Semi-circles must be made so exactly against each other on the edges of the
Cheeks, that when the two
Cheeks moving upon their
Joynt are clapt close together, the Semi-circles on both the
Cheeks shall become a perfect round hole, or circumference.
Near the top of one of these
Cheeks is fastned with a
Center-pin, a square Iron Coller marked
d. with a small
Handle to it marked
e. This square Coller is made to contain the breadth of
[Page 194] both the
Cheeks when they are shut together, and to hold them so fast together, that they shall not start assunder; and yet is made so fit, that it may slip off and on both the
Cheeks.
This
Joynt-Coller may serve to do the Office of the other two
Collers, and its one particular Office too: Yet to save the Charge of the price of this Tool,
Turners seldom use them, but make shift with either of the other, or sometimes with a hole made in a Board only: But its particular Office is to hold a
Mandrel, whose Neck is fitted to one of its Holes, and the work they are to
Turn is required to stand out free from the outer Flat of the
Cheeks of the
Coller, the better to come at it with the
Tool; such as are deep Boxes, or deep Cups,
&c.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works. Applied to the ART of
TURNING.
§ VIII. Of the
Mawl.
THE
Mawl is marked K in Plate 13. The Figure of it there is Description sufficient: Its Office is to knock and unknock the Wedge in the
Puppets; and to knock upon the back of the
Cleaving Knife, when they split their Wood for their Work. The
Joyner's Mallet would supply the Office of this Tool; but use has made the
Mawl more handy for them: Besides when one is batter'd to shivers, they can quickly, of a Chump of Wood, accommodate themselves with another.
§ IX. Of the
Hatchet, Draw-knife and Cleaving-knife.
THe
Hatchet is marked L in Plate 4. It is of the same sort that
Joyners use; which I described
Numb. 5. § 25. and therefore refer you thither. And the
Draw-knife is described in
Numb. 7.
[...] 5. Plate 8. marked E. The
Cleaving-knife marked M in Plate 13. needs no other Description than that Figure.
THe
Chopping-Block is marked N in Plate 13. It is made of a piece of
Elm-Tree placed with its Grain upwards and downwards as it grew. It hath three Leges in it, that stand stradling out from the underside of the
Block to the Floor, and of such an height, as the Workman may have most Command of the Work. See the Figure. Sometimes
Turnners use instead of it, a piece of the Trunk of a Tree, of about a Foot and an half, or two Foot, in length from the Ground, or more or less.
§ XI. Of the
Callippers.
THe
Callippers is marked O in
Plate 13. As common Compasses (described
Numb. 6. § 32.) are for measuring Distances upon a plain Superficies; so
Callippers measure the distance of any round
Cilindrick Conical Body, either in their Extremity, or any part less than the Extream: So that when Workmen use them, they open the two points
aa to their described width▪ and
Turn so much stuff off the intended place, till the two points of the
Callippers fit just over their Work; so shall their Work have just the Diameter in that place, as is the distance between the two points of the
Callippers, be it either Feet or Inches,
&c.
§ XII. Of the
Drill-Bench.
THere is yet another Tool, or rather a
Machine used by some
Turnners, called a
Drill-Bench. It is described in Plate 14.
aaaa a thick Board, about three Inches thick, five Inches broad, and eighteen Inches long,
bb two Stiles placed towards either end, and fastned upright. In the hithermost Stile is a
Coller described § 7. and
[Page 197] Plate 13. H. or any of the other
Collers: And in the further
Stile is fitted a square flat tempered piece of Steel having a Center-hole in the middle of it, and is placed just against the Center or middle point of the Hole of the
Coller, cc the
Rowler, whose hither end is
Turned away, so as it just fit into the
Coller, and at the further end of it, it hath a temper'd
Steel [...], to be placed in the Center-hole: And in the middle of the hither end of it, it hath a
Piercer-Pit fastned straight in, so that it lie in a true straight Line, with the
Axis of the
Rowler. Of these
Rowlers they have several, and
Bits of different sizes fitted into them, that upon all occasions they may chuse one to fit their purpose.
On the under-side, about the middle of the
Bench, is fitted and fastned athwart it a square Iron
Coller, deep enough to reach through the
Cheeks of the
Lathe, and so much deeper as it may receive a Wooden
Wedge, such a one as belongs to one of the
Puppets: And by the force and strength of the
Wedge, the whole
Drill-bench is drawn down and fastned athwart the
Cheeks of the
Lathe.
When it is used, it stands athwart the
Cheeks of the
Lathe (as aforesaid) with the point or end of the
Bit towards you; and then the
String being turned twice or thrice about the
Rowler, will (with
Treading on the
Treddle) turn the
Rowler and its
Bit forcibly about, and cause it to enter swiftly into a piece of Wood that shall be prest forwards upon the
Bit.
When they use it, they hold the piece of Wood they intend to
Drill, or
Pierce, fast in both their Hands, right before them, and press it forwards upon the
Piercer-Bit; so that by its running about, it cuts a straight round hole into the Wood, of what length they please.
[Page 198]But while the
Pole is rising after every
Tread, they press not against the
Piercer-Bit, so that it is dis-ingaged from doing its Office in the Wood; but in that while, they nimbly give the Wood a turn in their hands, of about one third part of its Circumference; which makes the
Bit very successive
Tread, go the straighter through the middle of the Wood: And thus they reiterate
Treads, and keep the Wood turning in their Hands, till the
Bit is enter'd deep enough.
Thus much of the
Tools used in common
Turnning: I shall proceed to the Working a Pattern or two in soft Wood; which being well understood, may render a Practicer capable of most common Work.
§ XIII. Of
Turning a
Cilinder in soft Wood.
THe soft Wood
Turners Use is commonly either
Maple, Alder, Birch, Beech, Elm, Oak, Fir, &c. and for some particular purposes each of these sorts are best.
The first Pattern we purpose shall be a
Cilinder two Inches over, and eight Inches long: Therefore you must chuse a piece of Wood
[...] lest two Inches and a quarter over, lest you wa
[...] Stuff to work upon: Nay, if your Stuff prove shaken, or otherwise unsound, or your Center be not very exactly pitcht, you may want yet more Stuff; and that according as it proves more or less faulty, or as the Centers are more unequally pitcht. But supposing the Stuff good
[...] you may take a piece of two Inches and a quarter over, as I said before, and about ten or eleven Inches long. For though the length of the
Cilinder be but eight Inches, yet you must cut your Stuff long enough to make a Groove at one end of it besides, for the
String to run in. If your Stuff be somewhat too big for your
[Page 199] Scantlin, and not round enough to go into the
Lathe, you must
Hew it pretty near with the
Hatchet to make it sizable, and afterwards smoothen it nearer with a
Draw-knife, as you were taught,
Numb. 7. § 5.
But if you have not Stuff at hand near your size, then you must Saw off your length from a Billet, or some other piece of Stuff, and with the
Cleaving-knife and the
Mawl, split it into a square piece near the size, and with the
Draw-knife [...]ound off the Edges to make it fit for the
L
[...]the.
Then set your
Puppets, and wedge them right up, so as the
Points of your
Spikes stand pretty near the length of your Work assunder, and move the
Pole, so as the end of it may hang
[...] between the
Pikes, and also fit the Iron
Pin [...] the
Treddle into a proper
Hole in the
Cross-Treddle, so as the end of the
Treddle may draw the
String below the Work into pretty near a
[...]traight Line with the string above the Work:
[...]nd take the Work in your Right Hand, and
[...]ut it beyond the
String before you, and with
[...] Left Hand wind the
String below the Work,
[...] once about the Work, lest it should be too strong for your shallow Centers, as you shall understand by and by, and then with a pretty strength press the middle of one end of your Work over the Point of one of the
Pikes, and so
[...]ke a hole in your Work for one of the Cen
[...]er holes: Then screw your Pike wider or closer, according as the length of your Work requires,
[...]d pitch the other end of your Work upon the other Pike also, and screw your Work a little
[...]ightly up: Then try how the Centers are pitcht, by Treading the
Treddle lightly down; and if you find the Centers are well pitcht, you may
[...]thout more ado screw up your Work
[...] tight:
[Page 200] But if your Centers, or either of them be not well pitcht, you must alter them. You may kn
[...]w when they are well pitcht, by treading softly upon your
Treddle, and holding your Finger steddy on the
Rest, direct the point of it pretty close to the Work: For if in a Revolution of your Work, its Out-side keeps it an equal distance from the end of your Finger, you may conclude your Work is well pitcht. But if you find one side of your Work comes nearer your Finger than the other side, you must with your
Flat Chissel, or
Gouge, (or what is nearest at hand) knock softly, or hard, upon that side that comes nearest to your Finger, till you have forc'd the
Pikes into the true Centers at the end of your Work; and then you may boldly screw it hard up: But you must be sure to screw it hard up; because it is soft Wood you purpose to work upon, and the strength of the
Pole may endanger the drawing or removing the Centers, if the
Pikes have not good hold of them.
Having found your Centers, take your Work again off the
Pikes, and wind the
String once or twice more about your Work, that your
String (as I said in
Numb. 10. § 1. when I wrote of the
String) may the better command it, and then wind off or no more
String at the end of your
Pole, or end of your
Treddle, or both, if your Work require it, till the
Pole draws the
Treddle up a little above half the length of the
Legs of the
Lathe. For about the height your Leg may without sudden trying, command the
Pole down again.
But before you begin to work upon the Stuff, I shall inform you how to
Tread the
Treddle, in which you may observe this General Rule; That the nearer the Fore-end of the
Treddle you
Tread, the easier you bring down the
Pole; but then
[Page 201] the
Pole in its Spring rases your Leg the higher, and may draw the upper side of the your Thigh against the underside of the
Cheek of the
Lathe, and with reiterated Risings Gawl, and also tire your Thigh.
Place therefore your Foot steddy upon the
Treddle, so far forward as you can, to avoid the
Poles rising from drawing your Thigh against the underside of the
Lathe; and Tread the
Treadle nimbly down, but not quite so low as to knock against the Floor: Then abate the weight of your Tread, and let the
Pole draw the
Treddle up, but still keep your Foot steddy, and lightly Bearing upon the
Treddle: For then your succeeding
Treads will prove easier to your Leg and Thigh, and you will with your Foot the better and quicker command the
Treddle. Then
Tread again nimbly down as before, and keep this train of Treading till your Work be finish'd, or that you may have occasion to stop and exaime how rightly you proceed.
In all small Work the
Tread is lightly and nimbly performed; but in large and heavy work the
Tread comes slow and heavily down.
This being premised, you may begin with your
Gouge; lay the round side of it upon the
Rest, and take the Handle of it in your Right Hand, and lay the Fore and Middle Fingers of your Left Hand upon the Hollow of the
Gouge near the Work, mounting the Edge about a quarter of an Inch above the
Axis of your Work, and sinking your Right Hand a little; for in this position the
Gouge cuts best: And thus cut down on your Work near one end, a
Groove for your
String to run in: The
Groove may be about an Inch, or an Inch and an half long; but it matters not much what depth. Then slip your
String into the
Groove, and if you find the
String[Page 202] will not slip easily, you may put your Foot under the
Treddle and lift it a little up, that the
String when no weight is hanged to it, may slide the easier into the
Groove.
And by the way you may take notice, that the deeper you cut down the
Groove, the oftner will your Work come about every Tread; because the
String that comes down every Tread, measure a small Circumference oftener than it does a greater Circumference: But then the work is not so strongly carried about; because it hath a less portion of the
String to command it. This I hint, not that in this our small proposed Pattern it is very considerable: For if you only cut the
Groove down but so low as there may be a Shoulder at the end, and another against the Work, to keep the
String from slipping out of the Groove▪ it will be sufficient: But in heavy Work this
Groove ought to be cut with discretion.
Now come to the Forming of your Work, and hold your
Gouge, as you were taught before, but somewhat lightly against your Work, beginning at one end, and sliding your
Gouge gradually to the other, cutting with its Edge all the way you go, and bearing somewhat stiff against the Work every Tread you make on the
Treddle
[...] And withdrawing it again a little lightly from the
work every Spring of the Pole. And thus by Use you must habituate your self to let the edge of your
[...] bear upon the Work when the Pole and
Treddle comes down, and to draw it back
[...]st off the Work, as the Pole and
Treddle goes up. And thus you must continue till you have r
[...]gh-wrought all your work from end to end.
If you have not at first brought your Work
[...] that is, if you have not gone deep
[...] with your
Gouge to take off all the Ri
[...]sings
[Page 203] of the Stuff the
Draw-knife left, even with the smallest part of your Work, you must in like manner (as before) work it over again. But you must have a special Care you take not too much Stuff away on any part of the whole Work: For this proposed Pattern being a
Cilinder, if you take but a small matter to much away from any part, and make it smaller than your given measure there, the whole Work will be spoiled, as being smaller than the proposed Diameter; which to know, you may by opening the Points of your
Callippers to two Inches on your
Rule (the proposed Diameter of your
Cilinder) try if the Points at that distance will just slip over the deepest
Grooves of your Work (for we will not suppose that the
Grooves are of an equal depth with the Rough-working of the
Gouge) without straining the Joint, for then your Work is just sizeable: If not, work over again as before,
&c. But we will now suppose you have not taken too much away, but have made a due process with your
Gouge. Therefore now proceed, and use a
Flat Chissel, about an Inch and an half broad, to take off the Irregularities the
Gouge left.
Take the Handle of it in your Right Hand, as you did the
Gouge, and claspsing the
Blade of it in your Left Hand, lean it steddy upon the
Rest, holding the Edge a little aslant over the Work, so as a Corner of the thin side of the
Chissel may bear upon the
Rest, and that the Flat side of the
Chissel may make a small Angle with the
Rest, and consequently with the Work; (which is parallel to the
Rest) for should you set the edge of the
Chissel parallel to the Work, it might run too fast into the Work, and dawk it. Therefore you must set the
Chissel in such a position, that the lower, Corner, or near the lower Corner of the
[Page 204] edge, may cut lightly upon the Work: But this position is best described by a Figure, which to that purpose I have inserted in
Plate 14. at O, where you may perceive in, or near, what position the
Chissel must be set to cut the Work; and how the edge of the
Chissel ab lying aslant the Work, and the further Corner of the edge of the
Chissel b being somewhat mounted, as the Work comes about, the Bottom, or near the Bottom, of the edge of the
Chissel is only capable to cut a narrow Shaving off the Work: And just in this manner you must keep the
Chissel steddy bearing upon the Work, as the
Pole comes down, and withdrawing it from the Work as the
Pole Springs up (as you were taught to use the
Gouge) and at the same time sliding it forwards from one end of the Work to the other, till it be wrought down all the way to its true Diameter between the points of the
Callippers: For then a straight
Ruler applied to your Work, the outside of your purposes
Cilinder will be formed.
Only the ends must be cut down square to the length: Therefore open the points of your Compasses to the distance of eight Inches on your
Rule, and prick that distance hard off upon your Work, that the points of your
Compasses may leave visible marks, by placing one point as near one end as you can, to leave Stuff enough to cut straight down all the way; that is, to cut it square down at right Angles with the outside of the Work. Which to do, you must hold the Handle of the
Flat Chissel in your Right Hand (as before) and clasp the Blade of it in your Left, and lay one of the thin sides of it upon the
Rest, so that the edge may stand upright, or very near upright against the Work. Then sink your Right Hand somewhat below the Level of the
Rest, that the lower Corner of the edge of
[Page 205] the
Chissel may mount, and being thrust steddy against the Work, just in the mark one Point of the
Compasses made, Tread the
Treddle, and cut a pretty deep Circle into the Stuff. But you must have a care you do not direct the cutting Corner of the
Chissel inwards, but rather outwards, lest you make the end hollow instead of Flat: For if you do take off too little at first, you may by degrees cut it down to a Flat afterwards. As you cut deeper into the Stuff, you must turn the Flat of the
Chissel, and with it cut down the Shoulder just at the end on the outside the mark, for else that may hinder the Corner of the edge of the
Chissel for coming at the Work.
Note, That if you hold not the edge of the
Chissel truly before the Work, but direct it inwards, and if you hold it not very steddy, and have a good guidance of it, the quick coming about of the Work, may draw the edge of the
Chissel into it inwards and run a dawk on
Cilinder, like the Grooves of a
Screw, and so spoil your Work: For being once wrought to the true size, you cannot afterwards take any more off to cleanse it,
&c.
IF your Board be thick enough, you may boar a round Hole in the middle of it; and turn a
Mandrel with a
Pin a very little Tapering, to fit hard and stiff into the round Hole: And if the
Hole and
Pin be proportionable in size to the weight of the Board, the
Pin will carry it about. But you must be very careful the
Hole be boarded exactly straight through the middle, and not inclining on either side the Board, more to any part of the Verge than to another; but that the middle of the
Hole be exactly the Center of the Board the whole thickness through. This
Pin-Mandrel is described
Numb. 11. § 6. and
Plate 13.
If your Board be not thick enough to be fastned upon a
Pin-Mandrel, or that your Work will not admit of an Hole to be bored through the middle of it, you may use the
Flat-Mandrel described
Plate 12. F 2. And then you must with your
Compasses find the Center on the backside of the Round Board (with several proffers if need require) till you have found it, and prick there an Hole for a mark: Then open the points of your
Compasses to about the thickness of a Shilling wider than the Semidiameter of the
Flat-Mandrel; and with the points of your
Compasses at that distance describe a Circle on the backside of the Board to be turned, by placing one Foot in the prick-mark, and turning about the other Foot. By this Circle you may pitch the Center of the B
[...]rd exactly upon the Center of the
Flat-Mandrel [...] points of the
Compasses being opened about the thickness of a Shilling wider than the Semidiameter of the
Flat-Mandrel: will
[Page 207] (when you have pitcht the Center of the Board on the Center of the
Mandrel) place the outer Verge of the
Mandrel the thickness of a Shil
[...]ing round about within the Circle described on
[...]he the backside of the Board: And when it is
[...]hus pitcht, you may, by laying the Board flat
[...]own, knock upon the
Rowler end of the
Man
[...]rel, and drive the
Pegs in the flat of the
Man
[...]rel into the Board, and so hold it steddy upon
[...]he
Mandrel: Then find the Center on the Fore
[...]ide of the Board also, as you were taught to
[...]ind the Center on the backside, and put your Board and
Mandrel upon the
Pikes of the
Pup
[...]ets, and screw them hard up, as you have been
[...]ught before.
Sometimes
Turners use this
Flat-Mandrel without
Pegs, and then they chalk the Flat side of it very well, and clap the backside of the Board to it, which will (if the Board to be
Turned be
[...]ot too heavy, but be well screwed up between the
Pikes) keep the Board steddy from slipping from its set-position, till you work it.
If in going about of your Work you find it
Wabble, that is, that one side of the Flat incline either to the Right or Left Hand, you must with soft Blows of an Hammer, or other Tool at hand, set it to right, and then again screw it hard up: For so often as you thus strike upon the Verge to set the Board true, you force the Steel point of the
Pike more or less (according to the softness of the Wood) towards that side of the Verge you strike upon; and therefore you may perceive a reason for screwing up the
Pike so oft as you knock upon the outer Verge of the Board.
But we will now suppose the Board well pitcht and fastned on the
Mandrel and Center; there
[...]re take the
Side-Rest described in § 1.
Numb.[Page 208] 10. ¶ 7. and
Plate 82. at the Figure e, and fg, and fit it so into the
Lathe, as the upper edge of it may stand range, or parallel to the side of the Board you are to work upon, and so wedge it hard up.
Now you must come to use the
Hook, described
Numb. 12. § 5. and
Plate 15. For this Tool is most commodious to serve you instead of the
Gouge, when the Work stands athwart the
Pikes; because the end of the Blade of this Tool being on its Flat side turned into a Circular Figure, and that Circular Figure turned a little backwards, one of the Edges of this Circular Figure will conveniently (though the Tool be not held straight before the Work) come at any part of the Flat of the Board, and so by the Circulation of the Board against the Edge of the
Hook, cut off its irregular Extuberances.
In the using of this Tool, you must place the end of the
Handle under your Arm-pit, and hold your Left Hand on the upper side of the Blade of the Tool close to the
Rest, and your Right Hand close besides your Left Hand under the Tool, and with both your hands clasp the Tool hard, and press it steddy upon the
Rest, and at the same time hold it also steddy, and yet lightly bearing against the Work, that by the swift coming about of the Work it draw not the Edge of the thin and tender Blade of the
Hook into it.
You must not hold the Blade of this Tool perpendicularly before the Work,
viz. parallel to the
Pikes, but aslant, so as somewhat above the middle of the Convex of the
Hook may touch against the Work. You may begin at the Verge, and so lay several Grooves close by one another
[Page 209] till you come to the Center: But you must observe (as was said before in the
Cilinder) that you lay all your
Grooves of an equal depth into the Board: For if you lay one deeper than the rest, and an Hollow may not properly be in that place, you must again go over your work with your
Hook, to work that dawk out: And then perhaps your Board may be made too thin for its intended purpose. But this Craft of the Hand must be acquired with some continued Use and Practice, which will better inform your Judgment what Errours you may be subject to commit, than many words (though significant) upon this Doctrine. And this I'm sure I found, when I first practised upon
Turning.
Having thus with the
Hook rough-plain'd the Board (for this
Hook does in
Turning the Office of a
Fore-plain in
Joynery) you must use the
Triangular Grooving Tool, described in Turning § 5.
Plate 15. and with one of its Edges smoothen down the ridges the
Hook left on the Board.
But if your Work require any Molding near the Verge, or any other part of it, you must work that Molding as near as you can with the
Hook, especially where Hollows are required; for that cuts faster and smoother than any other Tool, and most artificially forms an Hollow.
If a Flat be to be laid in the Board, you must first use the
Triangular Point Tool, and with it strike so many Threds as the breadth of the Flat requires, and lay each Thred almost so deep into the Board as you intend the Flat shall be: And afterwards to smoothen it down, you must use the
Flat Grooving Tool, or a
Flat Chissel, and with either of them finish the Flat to its intended Depth and Breadth. And where a fine Thred, or Circle, is to be laid in the Board,
[Page 210] you must use the
Triangular Point Tool. And thus as you see occasion, you must accommodate your self with a Tool apt and proper for your purpose,
viz. such a Tool as will most conveniently come at, and from the intended Work.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works. Applied to the ART of TURNING.
§ XV. Of Turning
Hard Wood, and
Ivory.
IF the Wood be very hard, as
Ebony, Lignum Vitae; or if it be
Ivory, Bone, or
Horn they are to Turn; they neither use the same Tools they do for soft Wood; because their edge is to tender: Nor do they use their other Tools as they do soft Wood. For the Tools made for Hard Wood are made with a stronger Point, Edge,
&c. than they are for soft, as was said in Turning § 5. And they use them differently, because for Turning Soft Wood, they hold the Edge of the
Gouge and
Flat Chissel, at some considerable Distance from the
Rest, mounting the Edge at such an Angle as will best cut off from the Work, as a great Chip as they can, or desire. And as they Turn the Work smaller, they guide the
Chissel to follow the Work: But for Hard Wood, they raise the
Rest near the Horizontal Plain of the
Axis of the Work, setting it as close as conveniently they can to their Work, and lay their Tool flat and
[Page 212] steddy upon the
Rest; which being hard held in this position, does by the comming about of the Work, cut or tear off all the Extuberances the Tool touches in the sweep of the Work. So that (as I said before) as in
Turning soft Wood the Tool does somewhat follow the Work; in
Turning hard Wood the Work comes to the
Tool: And therefore you may perceive a great reason they have to keep the
Tool steddy: For should it in one sweep of the Work be thrust nearer the
Axis in any place, it would there take off more than it should.
Having prepared the Work fit for the
Lathe, either with Hewing, or as some Hard Woods and Ivory may require, with Rasping, they pitch it between the
Pikes, as before has been shewn, or such Work as it may be, as Boxes, and generally all Hollow Work, they fit into
Collers, either by screwing the
Mandrel on an Iron
Axis; or fitting it with some other of the
Mandrels described in Turning § 6. as is proper for it: As sometimes they fit the Work tight into an
Hollow Mandrel, and the tight fitting in holds it whilst it is working upon: And sometimes, if the Work be very thin, they fix it on a
Flat Mandrel with Cement; But they are always either to chuse one of the
Mandrels described already in Turning § 6. or else contrive (as they often do) some other
Mandrel convenient to the opportunity that accidentally their Business may require. For the Work (whether it be pitcht on the
Pikes, or fitted into
Hollow Mandrels, or otherwise) must run very steddy and tight.
But having thus fitted it into the
Lathe, they begin to work with the
Sharp-pointed Grooving Tool, or else with the
Triangular Groowing Tool,[Page]
[figure]
[Page 213] and with the point of either of these
Tools break the Grain of the Wood, by laying small Grooves upon its Surface, till they have pretty well wrought away Extuberances, and brought the Work tollerably near an intended shape, by streightning, hollowing, and leaving Risings in their several proper places.
Afterwards with edg'd
Grooving Tools of a proper Breadth, they cut down and smoothen away the Extuberances left by the
Sharp-pointed Grooving Tool, or the
Triangular Grooving Tool, and bring the Work into a perfect shape. Which done, they smoothen the work with the Edge of a piece of a Blade of a broken Knife, basil'd away, by following the Work with it: That is, holding the basil'd Edge of the Knife close against the Work while it comes about: For then its sharp Edge scrapes or shaves off the little roughness the grosser
Tools left upon the Work.
Lastly, they hold either a piece of Seal-skin or
Dutch Reeds (whose outer Skin or Filme somewhat finely cuts) pretty hard against the Work, and so make it smooth enough to polish.
Hard Wood they polish with
Bees-wax, viz. by holding
Bees-wax against it, till it have sufficiently toucht it all over; and press it hard into it by holding hard the edge of a Flat piece of hard Wood made sizable and suitable to the Work they work upon, as the Work is going about. Then they set a Gloss on it with a very dry Woollen Rag, lightly smear'd with
Sallad Oyl.
But
Ivory they polish with Chalk and Water, and afterwards dry it with a Woollen Rag, and a light touch of
Sallad Oyl; which at last they rub off again with a dry Woollen Rag, and so set a Gloss on it.
[Page 214]If there be a Screw to be made upon the thin Edge of an
Ivory, or
Hard Wood, or
Brass Box, they use the
Screw-Mandrel, and its
Socket, described in Turning 6. ¶ 4. and 5. as is shewn at the latter end of that Section.
§ XVI. Of
Turning long and slender Work of
Ivory.
SOme
Turners to shew their Dexterity in
Turning, and make others that know not the way how it is
[...] the
[...] Skill,
T
[...]rn long and slender
[...]Ivory, as small as an Hay-stalk,
[...] perhaps a Foot or more long: Which
[...] they cut a piece of
Ivory to its intended l
[...]ngth, but strong enough to bear working till they bring it to as small a
Cilinder as they can; which being thus forwarded, they place a
Joint Coller (as is described in Turning § 17.) made small and fit for their purpose, just in the middle of their Work: Only that their Work may
Bear at a smaller length, and consequently be stronger for being thus supported while it is
Turned yet smaller. Then they place other
Collers between the
Piles, and the middle
Coller, and
Turn the whole
Cilinder slender
[...]et. And thus by placing
Collers where ever they find the Work buckle, they (as aforesaid) with
Sharp Tools, tender touches▪ somewhat a loose and fine
String, weak Bow, and great care and diligence work the whole
Cilinder down as small as they list, either with Moldings, or other Work upon it, as best likes them.
The properest
Lathe to
Turn this slender Work in, is the
Turn-Bench described § 18.
Plate 16.
§ XVII. Of the
Brasiers Lathe and
Turning Tools; and their manner of using them.
BRrasiers that
Turn Andirons, Pots, Kettles,
&c. have their
Lathe made different from the Common
Turners Lathe, as you may see in
Plate 16. at A, where the
Cheeks, Puppets and
Rests, &c. are much stronger and the
Pikes stronger and longer than those the common
Turners use. Their
Edge Tools which they call
Hooks, are also of a different shape, as the Figures of them described at B 1, B 2, B 3. in the said
Plate shew, as being bent backwards and forwards towards the cutting end, somewhat like an z. And as the common
Turners work with a round
String made of Gut, as hath been described in Turning § 1. ¶ 14. The
Brasiers work with a
Flat Leather Thong, which wrapping close and tight about the
Rowler of their
Mandrel, commands it the easier and more forciably about. Their
Thong runs between the
Cheeks of the
Lathe.
The whole
Lathe, and its parts, are made so strong, because the Matter they
Turn being Mettal, is much heavier than Wood, and consequently with forciable coming about, would (if the
Lathe were slight) make it tremble, and so spoil the Work; as hath been said before.
The reason why the
Hook is so turned backwards, and again forwards, towards the end, is, that they may the better direct the Edge of it as much below the Horizontal Plain of the
Pikes as they list, the better (in many cases) to come at the Work: For contrary to Soft Wood, Hard Wood and Ivory
Turners, they always dip the end of their
Hook below the
Rest, that so the
Hook resting very steddy upon the
Rest, and also against one of the Iron
Pins standing upright in
[Page 216] the
Rest, and held very steddy forwards to the Work, the strong coming about of the Work against the strong Edge of the
Hook, scrapes off the extuberant Mettle lying in that Sweep.
I need no further describe the
Lathe, and other
Tools that belong to
Brasiers Turning; or more of the manner of using them; because, by the whole proceeding Discourse, these Arguments are largely and sufficiently handled; especially considering I have given you the Figures of them in
Plate 16. as aforesaid.
O
[...]ly, their way of
Whetting their
Tools being different from the
Whetting of other Turning
Tools, I shall say somewhat to: For they
Whet their
Ho
[...] upon a broad Flat Slate, holding the
Hook almost perpendicular, that the
Basil of its Edge
[...] with the Flat of the
Slate; with
[...] the upper end of the
Handle in their left
[...] the heavier on it, and clutching
[...] of the
Blade near the
Hook-end in the
[...] hand, to guide it: And thus with Spittle,
[...] Water, rub forwards and backwards on the Slate, till they have sharpned the Edge of the
Hook. But if it be a round end
Hook they whet▪ they chuse a
Groove in the
Slate fit to comply with the round edge of the
Hook (for they have different sized
Grooves in the Slate for that purpose) and so in it rub forwards and backwards as aforesaid.
§ XVIII. Of
Turning Small Work of
Brass, or other
Mettle.
SMall Work in
Mettal is
Turned in an
Iron Lathe called a
Turn-bench. The Figure of it is described in
Plate 16. at C. when they use it they screw it in the
Chaps of a
Vice, and having fitted their Work upon a small
Iron Axis, with a
Drill-Barrel fitted upon a square Shank at the end of
[Page 217] the
Axis next the left hand, they with a
Drill-bow and
Drill-string carry it about, as was shewn in Smithing
fol. 6. with this difference, that when a Hole is drill'd in a piece of Mettal, they hold the
Drill-bow in their Right Hand; but when they
Turn Small Work, they hold the
Drill-bow in their Left Hand, and with their Right Hand use the
Tool, which is commonly a
Graver, or sometimes a
Sculpter, fit to such Moldings as are to be made on the
Mettal.
They begin to work first with the sharp point of a
Graver, laying the Blade of it firm upon the
Rest, and directing the point to the Work, and lay Circles upon it close to one another, till they have wrought it pretty true: Then with one of the broad Edges of the
Graver they smoothen down what the Point left, and afterwards with
Sculpters, Round or
Flat, or great or small, they work their intended Moldings.
The Circumstances and Considerations in the choice of a
Drill-bow and
Drill-string for
Turning, are the same with what you find in Smithing
fol. 6, 7. for Drilling.
§ XIX. Of laying
Moldings either upon
Mettal, or
Wood, without fitting the Work in a
Lathe.
I Had, soon after the Fire of
London, occasion to lay Moldings upon the Verges of several round and weighty flat pieces of
Brass: And being at that time, by reason of the said Fire, unaccommodated of a
Lathe of my own, I intended to put them out to be
Turned: But then
Turners were all full of Employment, which made them so unreasonable in their Prizes, that I was forc'd to contrive this following way to lay Moldings on their Verges.
I provided a strong Iron
Bar for the
Beam of a
Sweep: (For the whole
Tool marked in
Plate 16,
[Page 218] is by Mathematical
Instrument-makers called a
Sweep.) To this
Tool is filed a
Tooth of Steel with such
Roundings and
Hollows in the bottom of it, as I intended to have
Hollows and
Roundings upon my Work: For an Hollow on the
Tooth, makes a
Round upon the Work; and a
Round upon the
Tooth, makes an
Hollow on the Work; even as they do in the
Molding-plains Joyners use. Then I placed the
Center-point of the
Sweep in a Center-hole made in a square
Stud of
Mettal, and fixed in the
Center of the Plain of the Work; and removed the
Socket that rides on the
Beam of the
Sweep, till the
Tooth stood just upon its intended place on the Verge of the Work, and there screw'd the
Socket fast to the
Beam.
To work it out, I employ'd a Labourer, directing him in his Left Hand to hold the Head of the
Center-pin, and with his Right Hand to draw about the
Beam and
Tooth, which (according to the strength) he us'd, cut and tore away great Flakes of the
Mettal, till it receiv'd the whole and perfect Form the
Tooth would make; which was as compleat a Molding as any Skillful
Turner could have laid upon it.
Having such good Success upon
Brass, I improv'd the invention so, as to make it serve for Wood also. And make a
Plain-Stock with my intended Molding on the
Sole of it, and fitted an
Iron to that
Stock with the same Molding the
Sole had.
Through the sides of this
Stock I fitted an Iron
Beam, to do the Office of the
Beam I used for the
Sweep, viz. to keep the Plain always at what position I listed from the Center (for thus the Iron in the Plain wrought about the Center, even as the Tooth in the
Sweep (before rehearsed) and to that purpose I made a round Hole of about
[Page 219] half an Inch Diameter near the end of the Iron: Then in the Center of the Work I fixed a round Iron
Pin, exactly to fit the said round Hole, putting the round Hole over the
Pin, and fitting the
Iron into the
Stock commodious to work with. I used this Plain with both Hands, even as
Joyners do other
Plains: For the
Iron Pin in the Hole of the
Beam kept it to its due distance from the Center; so that neither hand was ingaged to guide it.
But note, The
Stock of this
Plain was not straight (as the Stocks of other Plains are) but by Hand cut Circular pretty near the size of the Diameter of the intended Molding: And yet was made to slide upon the
Beam, farther from or
[...]earer to the Center, as different Diameters of Verges might require.
§ XX. To Turn several
Globes or
Balls of
Ivory within one another, with a
Solid Ball in the middle.
YOu must first Turn your
Ivory Ball or
Globe truly round, of your intended Diameter: Then describe a Circle exactly through the middle, or Equinoctial of the
Globe: Divide that Circle into four equal parts, and pitch one point of a pair of Compasses in one of those Divisions, and extend the other point to either of the
[...]ext Divisions, and describe with it a Circle r
[...]und about the
Globe. Then remove the stand
[...]ng point of the Compasses to either of the next Divisions in the Equinoctial, and in like manner describe another Circle round about the
Globe.
But Note, That the moving point of your Compasses must be somewhat bended inwards; for else its point will not describe a Circle on the greatest Extuberances of the
Globe, but will slide off it.
[Page 220]Thus shall the Ball or Globe be divided into eight Spherical Quadrants: Describe as great a Circle as you can in each of these Quadrants, and each two Centers of every two opposite Circles shall have an imaginary
Axix pass between them: And if the
Globe be successively pitcht upon all the rest of the Centers, so as the imagined
Axis passing between it and its opposite Center, lye in a straight line with the
Pike and the Center of the
Coller it is
Turned in, the working out of all the
Hollows on the
Ball will be but common
Turners Work, as you will find hereafter. This is in brief the Theory: But to the Practice.
You must use an
Hollow-Mandrel, made fit stifly to receive the convexity of the
Globe in its concavity, so as it may stick firmly in the
Mandrel, in its position: And you must take care that in pitching the
Globe into the
Mandrel, that the imaginary
Axis of the
Globe (which is the Line passing between the two Centers of the two opposite Circles as aforesaid) lye in a straight Li
[...]e with the
Axis of the
Mandrel; which you may know by examining whether the Circle described with your
Compasses (as aforesaid) on the Center (aforesaid) wabble not in a whole Revolution of the
Globe, from the point of a Tool applied steddy to it.
Having thus pitcht the
Globe true, and fixt it fast into the
Mandrel, you must begin to work with the
Triangular Grooving Point (described in Turning § 5. and
Plate 15.) placing the point of it pretty near the Center of the Circle, and work into the
Ball with the
Grooving Point, and so by degrees make a Hollow in the
Ball so deep, and so wide, as you think convenient, I mean so deep from the Superficies of the
Globe towards the Center of the
Globe, and so wide from the Center of the Circle described on the Superficies of the
[Page 221]Globe towards that Circle, as it may have a convenient Substance between this Hole, and the next intended to be
Turned.
Thus must every one of the eight Circles described on the
Globe, be successively by the same Rule, and after the same manner be pitcht outwards, and fixt into the
Mandrel, and then Hollowed out as the first was. Where Note, That every Hollow is to be
Turned to the same depth and width exactly as the first was: Which to do, you must use a
Gage made of a thin Plate of Iron or Brass, as is described in
Plate 17.
Fig. D. whose two sides from
a the Bottom of the
Gage, to
b the
Shoulder are the depth of the
Hollow from the Superficies of the
Globe towards the Center:
bb. is the width of the
Hollow at the Superficies of the
Globe; and
aa is the bottom width of the
Hollow; and the concave Arch between
aa is an Arch that the Convexity of the little solid
Ball to be
Turned within all the
Spheres must comply with. So that when each
Hollow is
Turned, the
Gage must be put into it to try how the sides of the
Hollow complies with the sides of the
Gage, and also how the Arch in the bottom of the
Gage, complies with the surface of the Solid
Ball in the middle.
Having thus
Turned all the
Hallows in the
Globe, you must provide several thin and narrow Arching
Grooving Tools, whose convex and concave Arches comply both with the Convexity and Concavity of each
Globe, or
Sphere, to be
Turned within the outermost: So that begining at the bottom of the Hollow, you Turn just half way of the Solid
Ball loose from the Sphere it is contained in,
viz. as far as the Equinoctial of the
Globe; and in thus Turning it, you must take great care, that the Solid Ball on its Convexity and the Concavity of the Sphere it is contained in, be both at the
[...]ame time Turned exactly Spherical.
[Page 222]Thus one half of the Solid
Ball being
Turned loose, you may in like manner
Turn the next Sphere it is included in half loose also: And so successively as many Spheres as you list.
Having thus
Turned one half of all the
Spheres loose, you must take the whole
Globe out of the
Hollow-Mandrel, and pitcht and fix the
Globe again into the
Mandrel, so as the imagined
Axis of the
H
[...]llow opposite to the last loosned
Hollow lye in a straight line (as before was taught) with the
Pike and
Center of the
Coller the
Mandrel runs in, and then
Turn the other half of the Solid
Ball and
Spheres also loose, as the first hal
[...] was
Turned.
§ XXI. To
Turn a
Globe with several loose
Spheres in it, and a
Solid Cube, or
Dy, in the middle of it.
THis is
Turned after the same manner the f
[...]rmer
Ball was
Turned; only instead of di
[...]ding the Equinoctial of that
Globe into four equal parts, the Equinoctial of this must be divided but into three equal parts, and their Semi-Circle draw through the divisions into either Pole of the
Globe ▪ So shall the
Globe be divided into six equal parts▪ or Segments; in each of which parts must be described a Circle, as was described before in the
Globes of eight equal parts; and in these six C
[...]rcles must be made six Hollows, as before there was eight: But instead of working the Bottom of each hollow Spherical, now the Bottom must be wrought Flat: So shall the
Cube when these six Hollows are thus made, be formed: And the Hollows being exactly of the same depth, and flat in the Bottom, the
Cube or
Dy will loosen, and each of the six Flats in the Bottom will become the six sides or Faces of the
Cube.
[Page 223]The manner of loosning all the other inward
Spheres, is as the Former: Only, that was loosned with twice pitching the
Ball in the
Mandrel, because the Centers of the
Hollows lay opposite to one another; but to loosen this
Ball will require three Pitchings into the
Mandrel; because the Centers lye not opposite to one another.
§ XXII. To
Turn a
Cube, or
Dy, in an Hollow
Globe, that shall have but one Hole on the outside to work at.
THe Outside of this
Globe must be Turned Round,
viz. Spherical, as the former, and fixed in an Hollow
Socket (as before hath been taught.) Then must an Hole be Turned in the
Globe so deep and so wide as you please, as in the former
Globes, and the Bottom of that Hole Turned flat, for one side, or Face of the
Cube, or
Dy: Then with a Semi-circular Tool loosen the whole Core, or middle of the Ball, and pitch the Core with the point opposite to the Center of the already flatted face of the
Dy, outwards against the Hole in the
Globe, and so fasten it in this position, by powring in some melted hard Wax, or other Cement; and then with a flat Tool Turn the foreside, (
viz. the side opposite to the first side) flat also: Which done, loosen it out of the Wax, and successively pitch the other sides to be Turned flat carefully against the Hole, so as all the sides have right Angles to each other, and fastning them with Wax, or Cement (as before) Turn them by the same Rule flat also.
[Page 224]Now to make this Thing more admirable to the ignorant Spectator, you may make the
Dy as big as you can, and the Hole you Turn it at as little as you can; that it may the more puzzle the Wit of the Enquirer to find how so great a
Dy should have Entrance at a small Hole, unless the hollow Ball were turned in two Halves,
&c.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works. Applied to the ART of
TURNING.
§ XXIII. Of Turning
Oval Work.
THIS Work may be perform'd in the Common
Lathe that goes either with the
Treddle-Wheel, or the great Wheel; because the Work must run always one way, if the
Puppet be made to it with the Machination described in
Plate 17. and an Iron
Axis be made to carry the Work about, and to its end be fitted and fastned a
Brass Coller, with a Female Screw in it, to screw on the
Mandrel that the Work you intend to Turn is fixt upon.
To the Foreside of this
Puppet is fastned at
b, as on a Center-pin, a strong Iron
Coller marked
bb, and this Coller is called the
Moving Coller; because it moves between the Iron
Shackle cc, and the Foreside of the
Puppet. Into this
Mo
[...]ing Coller is fitted the
Hollow Axis marked
c, so as to turn round in it as if it were in any of the other
Collors formerly described; but the
Moving Coller moving between the
Shackles, and the foreside of the
Puppet, carries the
Hollow Axis with it athwart the
Puppet, even so far as is the
[Page 226] width of the
Hollow between the
Shackle, and the Foreside of the
Puppet. And thus by the moving of the
Hollow Axis backwards and forwards the Work screwed in it, having an
Edg'd, or a
Pointed-Tool applied to it, receives that
Oval Form which is made upon the
Guide.
But to make it move thus to and from you, there are required several Machinal Helps: For there is a strong
Steel Bow as at
a, fastned about its middle part to the further side of the
Puppet, which stands about an Inch forwarder than the Foreside of the
Puppet with its hollow side to the Workman. And to the ends of this
Steel Bow is fastned a strong
String of Gut, and to the middle of that
String in a Noos is fastned another strong
Gut-string, with a Noos at its end. This last mentioned
String is made exactly of that length, that when the nearest side of the
Guide ▪ viz. its least Diameter is set into the
Groove of the
Guide-pulley, and the
Bow is strained, and this
String laid in the
Groove of the
String-pulley, the Noos at the end of it may be put over the Iron
Button fixed in the top of the
Moving-Coller. For then as the
Treddle-Wheel carries the
Axis about▪ the
Guide being firmly fastned upon the
Axis ▪ comes also about; and having the
Groove of the
Guide-pulley set against the outer edge of the
Guide, as the great Diameter of the
Guide is turned against the
Guide-pulley, the
Moving-Coller being drawn by the strength of the
Bow, draws the
Hollow Axis along with it, as also the Work screwed in the
Hollow Axis: And thus as th
[...] small Diameter of the
Guide comes to the
Guide pulley, the small Diameter of the Work is F
[...] med; and as the great Diameter of the
Guide comes to the
Guide-pulley, the great Diameter of the Work is formed.
[Page 227]But that the whole Machine may be yet better understood, I shall more particularly give you the names of all its parts, together with a Description upon its most material parts, where the
Fore-puppet is more largely delineated in
Plate 18. at A, where also some of the Members most difficult to be described, are drawn more at large by themselves.
a The
Bow.
b The
Moving Coller.
cc The
Socket in which the
Coller is moved.
d The
Stop-screw, to take out when the
Hollow Axis moves in the
Moving-Coller.
e The
Hollow Axis.
f The
Head, in which is contained the several
Guides.
g The
Center Head.
h The
Button.
i The
String-pulley.
k The
Wheel-pulley.
l The
Guide-pulley.
¶ 1. Of the
Hollow Axis, and its
Shank, marked
a in
Plate 18.
THe
Shank is a Bar of Iron about an Inch thick, and two Foot long, having in its further end a Center-hole to pitch upon the
Pike in the further
Puppet; but its hither end is made square to fit tight into a square
Socket, in the Brass
Hollow Axis: And when it is thus fitted into the hither end of the Brass, it is Turned true Cilindrically round, so as to fit into the round Hole in the
Moving Coller. The Diameter of the Round is about two Inches, and the length about two Inches straight; but then a Shoulder is Turned to the Brass Cilinder, to stop it from slip
[...]ing thro' the
Moving Center. In the Fore-end
[Page 228] of this
Hollow Axis (viz. in the Brass Cilinder) is Turned a wide Hole about an Inch and a quarter Diameter, and an Inch deep: And in this wide Hole is Turned a Female Screw with a course Thred, to receive a Male Screw made behind the
Mandrel that the Work is fixed upon.
About the middle of this Iron
Shank is placed a
Pulley made of Wainscot Board, about eight Inches Diameter, and an Inch thick, with a
Groove on its outer edge about half an Inch wide, and half an Inch deep, for the
String of the
Treddle Wheel that carries the
Axis about to run in▪ And between this
Pulley you may (if you will) have several lengths of such
Male-screws as was described in Turning § 6. ¶ 4. and
Plate 15. to make Screws with, if you please.
See the Figure
adcb, disjunct from the rest of the Work.
a The hinder end.
d The Pulley of the
Axis, or
Wheel-pulley.
c The Hollow, or Hole in the Fore-end of the
Hollow Axis.
b The
Shoulder of the
Hollow Axis.
¶ 2. Of the
Moving Coller marked b, in Plate
18.
THis whole Member is called the
Moving Coller, tho' the
Coller strictly is only the round Hole at
a, into which the
Hollow Axis is fitted. It is made of Iron to reach from its top at
h (the
Button) down to the bottom of the
Cheeks of the
Lathe, as at
b; upon which Pin (as on a Center) the whole
Moving Coller moves backwards and forwards; its extream Breadth is about three Inches, and its thickness above a quarter of an Inch. Its Neck at
c is clasped, but not fixed down to the Foreside of rhe
Puppet; for this
Neck is only gaged in the
Shackle marcked
c, so as the
Nec
[...], (and consequently the whole
Moving Coller)
[Page 229] may slide from end to end of the
Shackle forwards and backwards.
d A small
Female Screw, into which through a Hole in the
Shackle is fitted a
Male Screw to hold the
Moving Coller and the
Shackle together, that the
Moving Coller may not move when only round Work is Turned in the
Coller.
¶ 3. Of the Foreside of the
Puppet, and the
Shackle marked
c.
UNder this
Shackle (viz. between it and the Foreside of the
Puppet) moves the
Neck of the
Sliding-Coller from
a to
b, when the ends at
cc are fixed down to the Foreside of the
Puppet with two Iron Screws.
¶ 4. Of the
Hollow in the
Puppet marked
d.
IN the middle of the
Puppet is hollowed out a Hole about three Inches between the Fore and Back-side of the
Puppet, and four Inches athwart the
Cheeks in the
Puppet, and four Inches deep: So that about an Inch of Substance remains on each of the four upright sides. But the Top is quite open, (as at
a) through the middle of this square
Hole runs the Iron
Axis marked
bb, on which is fixed the several
Guides that are to be used in this sort of Working.
It is open at the Top, that Light may be let in to set the
Guide-pulley to which
Guide you please, and it is open on the hither side as at
ee, about an Inch and an half above and below the
Axis, that the
Guide-pulley may be slid on its
Axis to any of the
Guides.
The
Guide-pulley marked
d, is a brass Pulley of about an Inch Diameter, and a little above a quarter of an Inch thick, having a
Groove in the Edge of it to receive the Edge of the
Guide. It hath in its middle a round Hole about half an
[Page 230] Inch Diameter, which round Hole slips over a round Iron
Pin of the same Diameter, marked
ff, so as it may slide from one end of the said Iron
Pin to the other, according as the
Guides may be fixed towards either end.
When it is used, the Groove in the Edge of this
Guide-pulley is set against the Edge of the
Guide, and being fitted tight on the round Iron
Pin aforesaid, and the two ends of the Iron Pin fast fixed into the Wood of the
Puppet, the
Guide-pulley may indeed move round on the Iron
Pin; but the strength of the Iron
Pin, and
Guide-pulley will resist the extuberick parts of the Edge of the
Guide; and so with the assistance of the strength of the
Steel Bow force the
Guide and
Hollow Axis to move backwards; and then an Edge-Tool held to the Work in the
Mandrel screwed in the
Hollow Axis, will describe the same Figure on the Work, as is on the out Edge of the
Guide.
Note, that when you are at Work, you must keep the Hole in the middle of the
Guide-pulley well oyl'd, as also the round Iron
Pin it slides and turns round upon; because this
Guide-pulley ought to run round: For then the
Axis will have and easier and swifter motion, tho' it may indeed perform the Work if it run not round upon the Iron Pin.
§ XXIV. Of
Rose-work, &c.
ROse-Work Turning, or Works of any other Figure, are performed by the same Rule, and after the same manner as
Oval Work is made; only by changing the
Guides, and using one whose outer Edge is made with the Figure, or several Figures you intend to have on your Work.
TO the Turning of
Swash-work you must have two such
Puppets, as the
Fore-puppet described in § 22. And also a round
Swash-board, about ten Inches Diameter, and an Inch and an half thick, as is
a in Fig. B.
Plate 18. Upon both the flat sides of this
Swash-board, in a diametrical Line, is fastned upright an Arch of a Quadrant made of a Steel Plate, about half a quarter of an Inch thick, and an Inch and a quarter broad, as at
bb, cc. The Convex edges of these Quadrants are cut into Notches, like the Teeth of an Hand-saw; that according as you may have occasion to set the
Swash-board more or less a-slope, you may be accommodated with a Notch or Tooth to set it at. This
Swash-board hath an Hole made about its Center, to slip over the
Iron Axis, and being thus slipt over the
Iron Axis, you set it to that Slope you intend the
Swash on your Work shall have. And to fix it fast in this position, you must put the Blades of the Quadrants into two
Slits, made in the
Iron Axis as at
dd, and fit the two opposite Teeth against the two outer Shoulders of the
Slits.
You must moreover make two strong Steel
Springs as at
cc, to reach from the bottom of the outer sides of the
Puppets, being strong nailed, or rather screwed down there, which must reach up so high as the
Axis. And in the inner sides of these
Springs must be made two Center holes for the points of the
Axis to be fitted in: For the
Oval-Guide being fitted to one end of the
Axis, and a Low-Puppet, as at
f, wedged close to one side of the
Swash-board, when the
Swash-board stands in its greatest declirity; then in a Revolution of the
Axis, as the farther part of
[Page 232] the circumference of the
Swash-board comes to the
Low-Puppet, one
Spring will be forced backwards, and the other will spring forwards; and an Edg'd-Tool held against the Work fixed on the
Axis, will make on the Work the Form of a
Swash, &c.
These
Oval-Engines, Swash-Engines, and all other
Engines, are excellently well made by Mr.
Thomas Oldfield, at the sign of the
Flower-de-luce, near the
Savoy in the
Strand, London.
An Explanation of Terms used in these Exercises of
Turning, Alphabetically digested.
A.
AXis. The imagined straight Line that passes through the two Center-points that Turned Work is Turned upon. Thus the imagined Line that passes between the two Pikes through the Work in the Lathe is the Axis.
B.
BOw. The Bow that common Turners use is described § 1. ¶ 11. And the Bow that Oval Turners use is described § 23. and Plate 17, 18. at
a.
Button. The Button is described § 23. and Plate 17. at
h.
C.
CAllippers. Compasses with bowed shanks to measure the Diameter of any round Body. See § 11. and Plate 14. at O.
Center-head, See § 23. and Plate 17. at
g.
Cheeks. See § 1. ¶ 2. and Plate 12.
bb.
Chock. See § 6. ¶ 5. and Plate 13. at F. 5.
a.
Cleaving-knife. See § 9. and Plate 13. at M.
Crank. The end of an Iron Axis turned Square down, and again turned Square to the first turning down, so that on the last turning down a Leather Thong is slipt, to Tread the Treddle-wheel about.
MAndrel. See § 6. ¶. 1. and Plate 13. at F 1. F 2. F 3. F 4.
Mawl. See § 8. and Plate 13. at K.
Male-Screw. The Screw made upon a Shank, or Pin.
Moving-Collar. See § 23. ¶ 2. and Plate 18. at
b.
N.
NUt. A piece of Iron that a Female Screw is made in.
P.
PIke. See § 1. ¶ 5. and Plate 12.
Pin Mandrel See § 6. ¶ 2. and Plate 13. at F 2.
Pole. See § 1. ¶ 9. and Plate 12 at
l.
Puppet. See § 1. ¶ 3. and Plate 12. at
cc.
R.
REst. See § 1. ¶ 6. and Plate 12. at
e.
Rowler. See § 6. and Plate 13. F 1. at
b.
S.
SCrew-Mandrel. See § 6. ¶ 4. and Plate 13. at F 4.
Seat. See § 1. ¶ 15.
Shackles. See § 23. ¶ 2. and Plate 18. V at
cc.
Side-Rest. See § 1. ¶ 7. and Plate 13. at
e.
Socket. See
Chock.
Steel-bow. See § 23. and Plate 18. at
a.
Stop-Screw. See § 23. and Plate 17. at
d.
String. See § 1. and Plate 12. at
m.
String-Pulley. See § 23. and Plate 17. at
i.
Swash. A
Swash is a Figure whose Circumference is not Round but Oval; and whose Moldings
[Page 236] lye not at Right Angles, but Oblique to the
Axis of the Work. See § 25. and Plate 18. at Fig. B.
Swash-Board. See § 25. and Plate 18. at
a in Fig. B.
Sweep. See § 19. and Plate 16. at D.
T.
TRead. See § 13. Fol. 209.
Treddle. See § 1. and Plate 12. at
i.
Treddle Wheel. See § 1. ¶ 13.
Turn-Bench. See § 18. and Plate 16. at C.
W.
WAbble. When a piece of Work is not pitcht true upon its Centers, it will in a Revolution incline more on one side of its Circumference than on its opposite side. See § 23. and Plate 17. at
k.
There are several other Terms used in these
Exercises of
Turning, not explain'd here: But because they are used in some of the former
Exercises, and there explain'd, I shall referr you to them.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works. Applied to the ART of
Bricklayers Work.
Definition.
BRicklayers-Work is an Art Manual, which Joins several Bodies so together, that they adhere like one entire Body.
Whether the
White Mason, which is the Hewer of Stone, or the
Red Mason, which is the Hewer of Brick, be the most Ancient, I know not: but in Holy Writ, we read of making of Bricks, before we read of Digging or Hewing of Stones; therefore we may suppose the
Red Mason (or
Bricklayer) to be the most Ancient.
The method that I shall use in Treating of this Art shall be this.
First, I will shew what Materials they use, and their Composition.
Secondly, I will treat of their Tools, and describe their Names and Uses.
Thirdly, I will declare their Method of Working, both in
Bricks, Tiles, &c.
WHich are comprised under six Heads,
viz. 1.
Bricks, 2.
Tiles, 3.
Morter, 4.
Laths, 5.
Nailes, 6.
Tile-pins.
Of Bricks.
THey are made of Earth, of which the whiteish Chalky sort of Earth, and the Redish are the best.
At
Lunenburg in
Saxony, they make them of a fat Earth full of
Allom. Also there are good
Bricks made at
Pitane in
Asia, of a Pumice sort of Earth, which being dryed, will swim in Water and not Sink.
Likewise the Antients made them of Earth which was Sandy.
But here in
England they are made for the most part of a yellowish coloured fat Earth somewhat Redish.
And they are made of several sorts and sizes.
IN
Holland they make small ones, being about six Inches long, three Inches broad, and one Inch in thickness.
Which sort of Bricks, is commonly used here in
England, to pave Yards or Stables withal; and they make a good Pavement, and are very Durable, and being laid edge-ways looks handsomly, especially if laid Herring-bone fashion.
They are also used in Soap-boilers Fats, and in making of
Cisterns.
THe common Bricks that are made here in
England, are nine Inches in length, four Inches and ¼ in Breadth, and two and an half in thickness; and sometimes three Inches thick.
Most Counties in
England afford Earth for the making of
Bricks.
BUt the best Earth that we have in
England for
making of
Bricks, is in the County of
Kent, from whence we have most of the
Bricks which are Rubbed and Hewed for the Ornaments of the chief Fronts in the City of
London: The Ornamental part of which Fronts, are done with the reddest Bricks they can pick from among them; and the Rough or Plain Work, is done with the
Grey Kentish Bricks; also those
Gray Kentish Bricks are used in making of Cisterns to hold Water, and Horse-Ponds, and also Fats for Soap-Boilers; and I am of the Opinion, that no time will impair or decay those
Grey Kentish Bricks: But, as
Pliny says, (speaking of
Bricks,) that they will last to Eternity.
There are also in most Counties of
England, Bricks made for the Paving of
Floors of
Rooms, Cellers, Dary-houses, &c. which are made of a stronger sort of Earth, than the common
Bricks for Building, the
Earth being a kind of
Clay, and in some Countries are called
Clay Bricks, which are dearer than the
Ordinary Bricks by about six Shillings in a Thousand.
Likewise in several Counties, but chiefly in
Surrey, are made Paving
Tiles of three several Magnitudes; the largest sort being twelve Inches long, and twelve broad, and one Inch and an half in Thickness.
The second sort are ten Inches long, and ten Inches broad, and one Inch and a quarter thick.
The third sort are eight Inches long, eight broad, and one Inch thick.
Either of which sorts being Polished or rubbed with sharp Sand on the Surface, and the joints made exactly square, and the sides equal, by
[Page 240] hewing them with a
Brick Ax, and rubbing them on a rubbing Stone with sharp Sand, ma
[...]es an excellent Pavement and pleasing to the Eye, especially when laid
Arris ways.
Having thus described the several sorts of
Bricks, and also paving Tiles, we come in the next place to treat of
Tiles, made and used in the Covering of
Roofs of
Houses, both Publick and Particular, of which are four sorts or kinds.
The first sort are called
Plains Tiles, being made of a strong sort of Earth like
Clay; and are, or should be ten Inches and an half in length, in breadth six Inches and a Quarter, and in thickness three quarters of an Inch.
The second sort are
Gutter or
Hip Tiles, which are used sometimes for
Vallies and
Hips of
Rooffs, altho' here at
London, the
Vallies are commonly tiled with
Plain Tiles, and the
Hips with
Ridge, or (as some call them)
Roof Toiles: These
Gutter Tiles are in length ten Inches and an half, with convenient breadth and thickness accordingly, and are made Circular or hollow, and wider at one end than at the other.
The third sort are
Ridge or
Roof Tiles, being in length thirteen Inches, and made Circular breadthways like an half Cylinder, whose Diameter is about ten Inches, or more, and about half an Inch and half a quarter in thickness: These are laid upon the upper parr, or ridge of the Roof, and also on the Hips.
The fourth sort are
Pan-Tiles, being about thirteen Inches long, with a Nob or Button to hang on the Laths, and are made hollow or circular breadthways, being eight Inches in breadth, and about half an Inch in thickness, or somewhat more. The best sort of these are brought from
Holland into
England, and are called
Flemmish Pan-Tiles, we having such Tiles made here
[Page 241] in
England, but not so good: Which
Flemmish Tiles are sometimes glazed, and are of a Lead, or Blewish colour, and being glazed they are very durable and handsom.
Having done with the Description of
Tiles, for the Covering of Roofs, we come in the next place to treat of
Morter, and first of
Lime, being the chief Material of which the
Mortar is made, for the Cementing or joining of
Tiles, as well as
Bricks together, we will Treat of it in the first place.
Of Lime.
THere are two sorts, one made of Stone, which is the strongest, and the other of Chalk, both sorts being burnt in a
Kilne.
The Lime that is made of soft Stone or Chalk is useful for Plastering of Seelings and Walls within Doors, or on the insides of Houses; and that made of hard Stone, is fit for Structures or Buildings, and Plastering without Doors, or on the out side of Buildings that lies in the Weather; and that which is made of greasy clammy Stone, is stronger than that made of lean poor Stone; and that which is made of spongy Stone, is lighter than that made of firm and close stone; that is again more Commodious for Plastering, this for Building.
Also very good
Lime may be made of
Mill-stone, not course and Sandy, but fine and Greasy.
Likewise of all kinds of Flints (but they are hard to burn except in a
Reverbratory Kilne) except those that are roled in the Water, because a great part of its increase goes away by a kind of Glass.
But the shells of Fish, as of Cockles, Oysters,
[...] are good to burn for
Lime.
[Page 242]And the Fire in
Lime burnt, Asswages not, but lies hid, so that it appears to be cold, but Water excites it again, whereby it Slacks and crumbles into fine Powder.
Lime also is useful in divers things, for 'tis useful in Oyles and Wines, and good to Manure Land with; some season new Wine with it, mittigating the unpleasantness of the Wine therewith.
Moreover
quick Lime being cast into an arched Vault, and Water thrown upon it, consumes dead Bodies put therein.
Also
Diers and
Tanners, and likewise
Physicians use it, but they choose the newest, to wit, that which is newly drawn out of the
Kiln, and not slack'd with Water or Air.
It will burn so vehemently, that it makes crusts, and will fire Boards or Timber against which it lies; but being slackt for sometime, it burns no more, yet it warms and dries, and dissolves Flesh; and being washed three or four times, it Bites or Eats not, but dries quickly.
Lime mixt with Sand is much used in Buildings; and
Vitruvius says, That you may put three parts of Sand that is digged (or pit Sand) and one part of
Lime to make
Morter; but if the Sand be taken out of a
River, or out of the
Sea ▪ then two parts thereof, and one of
Lime; as also to
River to
Sea-Sand, if you put a third part of Powder of
Tiles or
Bricks, (to wit,
Tile, o
[...]Brick dust) it works the better.
But
Vitruvius his Proportion of Sand seems too much, altho' he should mean the
Lime before it is slacked; for one Bushel of
Lime before it is slack'd, will be five Pecks after 'tis slack'd.
Here at
London, where for the most part our
Lime is made of
Chalk, we put about thirty six Bushels of Pit-Sand, to twenty five Bushels o
[...][Page 243] Quick-Lime, that is about one Bushel and half of Sand, to one Bushel of
Lime.
And
Lime mixt with
Sand, and made into
Morter, if it lye in an heap two or three Years before 'tis used, it will be the stronger and better, and the reason of so many insufficient Buildings, is the using of the
Morter, as soon as 'tis made, as
Agricola saith.
Moreover there is other
Morter used in making of Water-courses, Cisterns, Fish-ponds,
&c. which is very hard and durable, as may be seen at
Rome, at this day, which is called
Maltha, from a kind of
Bitumen Dug there; for as they build most firm Walls thereof naturally, so they use it in making of Cisterns to hold Water, and all manner of Water-works; and also in finishing or Plastering of Fronts to represent Stone.
And I find two kinds of Artifices used by the Antients, both of which is compounded of
Lime and
Hogs-grease, but to one is added the Juice of Figs, and to the other
Liquid Pitch; and the Lumps of
Lime are first wet or slack'd with Wine▪ then pounded or beat with
Hogs-grease, a
[...]d juice of
Figs, or with the same
Pitch; that which hath
Pitch in it, is blacker and easily distingushed from the other by its Colour, and that which is Plastered with this
Tarrace, is done over with
Linseed Oil.
Metalists use a kind of
Tarrace in their Vessels for fining of
Mettals, that the melted Mettle run not out; for as the Moderns restrain
Water, and contain it, so the Antients, this liquid Mettal, and 'tis compounded or made of
Quick-Lime and
Ox Blood, the
Lime being beat to Powder and sifted, and then mixt with the
Blood and bea
[...] with a
Beater.
But their
Cement differs from both the
Malth
[...]s in Composition and use, for 'tis made of Dust
[Page 244] or Powder of
Marble, and
Glew made of
Bull or
Ox Leather, and with this they glew pieces of Marble or Stones together.
In latter times, two kinds of
Cement are in use, in both which they use the Powder of
Marble, or other
Stone, to one is added the Whites of Eggs, to the other is added
Pitch; to these some add other things, as the Gravers of
Gems, they make it of
Tile Dust and
Pitch.
Another Material which
Bricklayers use are
Laths, which are made of heart of
Oak, for out side Work, as
Tiling and
Plastering; and of
Fir for inside
Plastering and
Pantile Lathing; their usual lengths being 5 Foot, and 4 Foot, and sometimes longer or shorter; their Breadth sometimes 2 Inches, and one Inch and an half, the thickness about ¼ of an Inch or thicker: But for
Pantiling, the
Laths, are about ten Foot long, one Inch and half Broad, and half an Inch or more thick.
Another Material is
Nails, of which they use three sorts, one is called,
Reparation or
Lath Nails, which are used for plain
Tile Lathing, and outside and inside
Lathing for Plastring; another sort are four Penny, and six Penny Nails, used for
Pantile Lathing; and a third sort are great Nails for Scaffolding.
Moreover they use
Tile-Pins, which are sometimes made of
Oak, and sometimes of
Fir, which they drive into holes that are made in the
Plain Tiles to hang them upon their
Lathing.
They also put
Ox or
Cow Hair into the
Mortar which they use for
Plastering, being called
Lime and
Hair, which Hair keeps the
Mortar from Cracking or Chaping, and makes it hold or bind together.
And whereas they make use of the sharpest Sand they can get (that being best) for
Morter ▪
[Page 245] to lay
Bricks and
Tiles in; so they chose a fat
Loamy or Greasy Sand for inside Plasterning, by reason it sticks together, and is not so subject to fall assunder when they lay it on Se
[...]lings or Walls.
Having given you an account of the several Materials that are used in
Bricklayers Work, we shall in the next place Treat of their Tools and their uses, which are as follows.
Tools used in Brick Work.
1. A
Brick Trowel to take up the Morter with, and to spread it on the
Bricks, with which also they cut the
Bricks to such lengths as they have occasion, and also stop the joints.
2. A
Brick Ax ▪ with which they cut
Bricks to what shape they please, as some for Arches both streight and Circular, others for the mouldings of Architecture, as Archytrave Friez and Cornice.
3. A
Saw made of Tinn, to saw the Bricks which they cut.
4. A
Rub-stone, which is round, and is about fourteen Inches Diameter, and sometimes more or less at pleasure, on which they rub the Bricks which they cut into several shapes, and also others which they cut not, being call'd
Rubbed Returns, and
Rubbed Headers and
Stretchers.
5. A
Square, to try the bed of the Brick, (
viz. that side which lies in the Morter) with the superficies or face of the Brick, to make the Brick square, or at Rect-angles one side with the other, which is done by rubing it on the Rub-stone till it exactly answers, or fits to the Square.
6. A
Bevel, by which they cut the undersides of the Bricks, of Arches streight or circular, to such oblique Angles as the Arches require, and also for other Uses.
[Page 246]7.
A small Trannel of Iron, or a large Nail ground'd to a sharp point, with which they mark the Brick, either from a Square or Bevel▪ or a Mould made of thin Wainscot, or Pastboard to direct them in the cutting thereof.
8. Some use a
Float Stone, with which they rub the moulding of the Brick, after they have cut it with the
Ax, pretty near to the Pattern described on the Brick, by the
Trannel from the Wainscot, or Pastboard Mould, that so they may make the Brick exactly to answer to the Pattern or Mould. Others use no Stone at all, but cut the Brick exactly to the Pattern with their Brick-Ax, leaving the Ax stroaks to be seen on the Brick, which, if they be streight and parallel one to another, look very prettily, and is the truest way of Working; but then they must take care, to Ax the Brick off, with an Ax that is exactly streight on the edge, that the moulding in the Brick be neither round nor hollow, from side to side of a Header, or from end to end of a Stretcher.
9.
A Little Ruler, about 12 Inches in length, and 1 Inch and ½ broad, which they lay on the Brick to draw streight Lines by, with the
Trannel or
Nail.
10. A
Banker, to cut the Bricks upon, which is a piece of Timber about six foot long, or more▪ according to the number of those who are to work at it, and 9 or 10 Inches square, which must be laid on two Piers of Brick, or fixt on Bearers of Timber about three foot high from the Floor, on which they stand to work.
11. They work up a Pier of Brick-work, about the same height to lay their
Rubbing-Store upon, which must be laid in Morter that it may lye fast
[Page 247]12. A
Grinding-stone, to sharpen their Axes, Hammers, Trowels,
&c. upon.
13. A
Pair of Line Pins of Iron, with a length of Line on them about sixty feet in length, to lay each Row, or Course of
Bricks, level on the Bed, and streight on the Surface by, a Line seldom holding to strein, or draw streight in length, above 50 or 60 feet.
14. A
Plumb Rule about 4 foot long, with a Line and Plu
[...]met of Lead, to carry their Work upright, or perpendicular withal.
15. A
Level, about 10 or 12 foot long, to set out their Foundations level, or parallel to the Horizon, and also to try whether the Walls of the Building, or Jambs of Chimneys, be carried level, as they raise the Work, that so they may bring up all their
Brick-work to an exact horizontal height, at the laying on of ever floor of Carpentry.
16. A
Large Square, to set their Walls at rectangles, which may also be done without a
Square ▪ by setting 6 foot from the angle one way, and 8 foot the other way, then if the Diagonal line, or Hypotenuse, be exactly 10 feet, the angle is a rectangle: If not, you must set the Wall that is to be at rectangles to the other, either this or that way, till the two measures of 6 and 8 feet answer exactly to 10 feet.
17. A
Ten Foot and a
Five Foot Rod, as also a
Two Foot Rule, to take and lay down Lengths, and Breadths, and Heights.
18. A
Jointing Rule, about 10 foot long, and about 4 Inches broad, whereby to run the long Joints of the
Brick-work.
19. A
Jointer of Iron, with which, and the foresaid Rule, they joint the long
Joints, and also the
Cross Joints, these being done with the
Jointer without the
Rule.
[Page 248]20.
Compasses, to describe the several Mouldings on Wainscot or Pastboard.
21. A
Hammer, to cut Holes in
Brick-work, and drive Nails for Scarfolding.
22. A
Rammer, to Ram the Foundations.
23. A
Crow of Iron, to dig through a Wall, and also a
Pick-Ax.
The
Manner and
Shapes of the aforesaid
Tools, you may see in Plate 1. and the Name of each
Tool in the Page next the Plate wherein they are delineated.
The Names and Uses of
Tools relating to
Tyling.
1. A
Lathing Hammer, to nail on the Laths withal, with two
Gauge Stroaks (for Lathing for
Tyling) cut upon the handle of it, one at 7 Inches from the head, and the other at 7 Inches and an half; some indeed Lath at 8 Inches, but that is too wide, occasioning Rainings in.
2. A
Lathing Staff of Iron, in the form of a Cross, to stay the cross Laths while they are nailed to the long Laths, and also to clinch the Nails.
3. A
Tyling Trowel, to take up the Morter and lay it on the Tiles, it being longer and narrower than a
Brick-Trowel, altho' for a shift many times they use a
Brick-Trowel to Tyle withal, when they have not a
Tyling-Trowel.
4. A
Bosse, made of Wood, with an Iron Hook, to hang on the Laths, or on a Ladder, in which the Labourer puts the Morter which the Tyler uses.
5. A
Striker, which is only a piece of Lath about 10 Inches long, with which they strike, or cut off the Morter at the britches of the Tiles.
6. A
Broome, to sweep the Tyling after 'tis strooke.
Of the Names and Uses of
Tools relating to Plastering.
1. A
Lathing Hammer being the same as before in Tyling, with which the Laths are nailed on with its head, and with its Edge they cut them to any length, and likewise cut off any part of a Qurter, or Joyst, that sticks further out than the rest.
2. A
Laying Trowel, to lay the Lime and Hair withall upon the Laths, it being larger than a
Brick Trowel, and fastned its handle in a different manner from the
Brick Trowel.
3. A
Hawke, made of Wood about the bigness of a square Trencher, with a handle to hold it by, whereon the Lime and Hair being put, they take from it more or less as they please.
4. A
Setting Trowel, being less than the
Laying Trowel, with which they finish the Plastering when it is almost dry, either by Trowelling and brishing it over with fair Water, or else by laying a thin Coat of fine stuff made of clean Lime, and mixt with Hair without any Sand, and setting it, that is to say, Trowelling and brishing it.
5. A small
Pointing Trowel, to go into sharp Angles.
6.
Brishes, of three sorts,
viz. A
Stock Brish, a
Round Brish, and a
Pencil. With these
Brishes ▪ they wet old Walls before they mend them, and also brish over their new Plastering when they set, or finish it, and moreover white and size their Plastering with them. The
Pencil, or
Drawing Tool, is used in blacking the bottoms, or lower ports of Rooms,
&c.
7.
Floats, made of Wood, with handles to them, which they sometimes use to float Seelings or Walls with, when they are minded to make their Plastering very streight and even,
[Page 250] these
Floats being some larger, and some lesser, than the
Laying Trowels: Likewise they use
Floats made to fit to Mouldings, for the finishing of several sorts of Mouldings with finishing Morter to represent Stone, such as
Cornices, Facias, Archytraves, &c.
The finishing Morter to represent Stone, should be made of the strongest Lime, and the sharpest Sand you can get, which Sand must be washed in a large Tub, very well, till no Scum or Filth arise in the Water, when you stir it about, which sometimes will require to have Water 5 or 6 times, when the Sand is somewhat foul; and it requires a greater Proportion of Sand than the ordinary Morter, because it must be extreamly beaten, which will break all the knots of
Lime, and by that means it will require more Sand.
8.
Streight Rules of several lengths, to lay Quines streight by, and also to try whether the Plastering be laid true and streight, by applying the Rules to their Work.
9. A
Pale, to hold
Water or
Whitewash, or
White and
Size.
10. Some use a
Budget or
Pocket to hang by their sides, to put their
Nails in when they
Lath, and others Tuck and tye up their
Aprons, and put the
Nails therein.
Having given you a Description of the several
Tools and uses, there are some things yet remaining, which tho' they cannot be properly called
Tools, yet they are
Utensils, without which they cannot well perform their Work.
1.
LAdders, of several lengths, as
Standard-Ladders, two Story, and one Story
Ladders, &c.
2.
Fir Poles, of several lengths for
Standards and
Ledgers for
Scaffolding.
3.
Putlogs, which are pieces of Timber, or short Poles, about 7 Foot long, which lies from the
Leggers into their
Brickwork, to bear the boards they stand on to Work, and to lay
Bricks and
Morter upon.
4.
Fir Boards, about 10 Foot long, and any Breadth, but commonly about a Foot broad, because for the most part, four of them in breadth, makes the breadth of the Scaffold: Which boards ought to be one Inch and or two Inches in thickness, altho' commonly they make use of some, which are not above one Inch thick, which are sometimes subject to break, especially when the
Putlogs lye far asunder from one another.
5.
Chords, which should be well Pitched to preserve them from the Weather, and rotting▪ with which they fasten the
Ledgers to the
Standards, or upright
Poles.
6.
Sieves, of several sorts, some larger, others lesser, some finer, others courser, to sift the
Lime and
Sand withal, before they wet it into
Morter or
Lime and
Hair.
7. A
Loame-hook, Beater, Shovel, Pick-Ax, Basket and
Hod, which commonly belong to
Bricklayers, Labourers, and may be called the
Labourers Tools.
8. A
Skreen made of Boards and Wyer, which performs the Office of a
Sieve, and with which one Man will Skreen as much
Lime, mixt with
Sand or
Rubish, as two Men can with a
Sieve.
[Page 252]9.
Boards or
Tubs, to put the
Morter in.
And except my memory fails me, these are all, or the most usual Tools and Utensils, which they make use of.
Having now given you an account of their several Materials, together with their necessary Tools and Utensils; we shall proceed in the next place to treat of the Method of working, which is various, some working after a better Method, and more concisely than others.
And first of Foundations.
'TIs usual, and also very convenient, for any person before he begins to Erect a Building, to have Designs or Draughts drawn upon Paper or Vellum, and also if it be a large Building, to have a Model of it made in Wainscot; in which Designs and Model, the Ground Plat or Ichnography of each Floor or Story, is delineated and represented: As also the fashion and form of each Front, together with the Windows, Doors, and Ornaments, if they intend any, to wit,
Facias, Rustick Quines, Architraves, Friezes and
Cornices, are to be shewn in the Draughts or Designs of the Uprights or
Orthographyes.
If more Fronts than one be shewn
Perspectively in one Draught, then 'tis called
Scenography, which is not easily understood, except by those who understand the Rules of
Perspective.
Therefore it will be more Intelligible to the several Workmen, to have a Draught of each Front in a Paper by it self, and also to have a Draught of the Ground-Plat or
Ichnography of every story, in a Paper by it self; because many times the Conveniences, or Contrivances in one Story, differs from those in another, either in bigness of Chimneys, or division of the Rooms, some being larger in one Story than another, and
[Page 253] sometimes having more Chimnies in one Story than in another,
&c.
All which things being well considered, and drawn on Papers, or a Model made thereof, before the Building is begun, there will be no need of Alterations, or Tearing and pulling the Building to pieces after it is begun; for besides the hindrance of the Procedure of the Work, it makes the Building lame and Deficient, nothing being so well done, when 'tis put up, and pulled down, and set up again, as if it were well done at first.
Besides it makes the Workmen uneasy, to see their Work, in which they have taken a great deal of pains, and used a great deal of Art, to be pull'd to pieces.
The drawing of Draughts is most commonly the work of a Surveyor, although there be many Master Workmen that will contrive a Building, and draw the Designs thereof, as well, and as curiously, as most Surveyors: Yea, some of them will do it better than some Surveyors; especially th
[...]se Workmen who understand the Theorick pa
[...] of Building, as well as the Practick.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of
Handy-Works.
And now concerning the
Foundations.
AFter the Cellars are dug, if there are to be any, or if none, after the Trenches are dug, in which the Walls are to stand; the Master-Bricklayer, or else his Foreman (which ought to be an ingenious Workman) must in the first place try all the Foundations, in several places, with an Iron Croe, and Rammer, or, indeed, with a Borer (such as Well-Diggers use, to try what Ground they have to produce Water) to see whether the
Foundations are all sound, and fit to bear the Weight which is to be set upon them. If he find any part of the
Foundations defective, he ought to dig it deeper till he comes to firm ground; or if it proves to be loose, or made Ground to a great depth, then he must take care to make it good and sufficient to carry its Weight by Art, which may be done several ways.
First, If the
Foundation be not very lose, and insufficient, it may be made good, by ramming
[Page 255] in great Stones with a heavy Rammer, the Stones being placed close together, and about a foot wider on each side of the Trench than the width of the Wall is to be; because all Walls ought to have a Basis, or Footing, at least 4 Inches on a side broader than the thickness of the Wall; which Stones being well rammed, and the Basis being 8 Inches more in breadth than the thickness of the Wall, and this 8 Inches being set off, about one Inch, or one Inch and an half at a time on both sides (that so the middle of the Wall may stand on the middle of the Basis) may make the Foundation good, and able to bear its Burden.
But if the
Foundation be somewhat worse than as aforesaid, then he must get good pieces of Oak, whose length must be the breadth of the Trench, or about two foot longer than the breadth of the Wall, which must be laid cross the
Foundation about foot asunder, and being well rammed down, lay long Planks upon them, which planking need not be the length of the cross pieces, but only 4 Inches of a side wider than the Basis, or footing of the Wall is to be, and pin'd or spiked down to the pieces of Oak on which they lye.
But if the
Foundations be so bad that this will not do, then he must provide good Piles made of Heart of Oak, of such a length as will reach ground, whose Diameter must be about 1/12 part of their length, which must be drove or forced down with a Commander, or an Engin for that purpose, and then lay long Planks upon them, and spike or pin the Planks to them, and the closer together that these Piles are drove the better it will be.
[Page 256]Moreover, if the
Foundation be faulty but in here and there a place, and there be good Ground in the other parts of it, you may turn Arches over those insufficient places, which will discharge and take off the weight from the loose places.
And when you make these Arches to shun the difficulty of the Earth, and to save the charge of Expence, they must be made of Bricks and Morter that are very good, and be well wrought, that they do neither settle nor give way.
You may observe for the greater strength of these Arches, or Discharges, to make them higher than a Semicircle, or half round, if the Work will admit of it, and to make the same, of Portions of Arches: As in
Plate 3.
Fig. 4. you may see, they are described from an Equilateral Triangle; that is to say, supposing the breadth of the Arch between the Piers to be
AB; with this width, and from the points
A and
B, make the two Portions of the Arches
AC and
BC; this rising so high, adds great strength to the Arches to resist, or carry the Weight which they are to bear.
The ancient Architect
Leon Baptista Albert advises, when the Earth on which we would make Pillars or Piers is of equal resistance, that is to say, not good, to turn Arches inversed, or upside down, and says, by this means one Pillar shall bear no more weight than another, when the Earth that is underneath is not so strong, or that it bears more than another part; which he doth thus.
Having wrought up the Pillars, or Piers, as high as is necessary from the
Foundation, make from these Piers inverse Arches, as
ABC in
Plate 3.
Fig. 5. whose Joints tend to the Center
D.
[Page 257]By this construction he pretends for Example, that if the Pier
F hath a worse
Foundation, or hath a greater Weight, that is to say, is more charged than the other Piers, this charge, or weight, will be stopped, or stayed by the Inverse Arches
ABC, IHK, because the Earth which is under these Arches keeps the Piers in the same height, that is to say, that they shall not sink.
But he must also suppose that this Earth is as firm as that of the
Foundation of the Piers, or at least it must be made so.
The Ingenious Surveyor Mr.
Hook, made use of this Artifice, as I am informed, in building the Lord
Montague's brave House in
Bloomsbury, in the County of
Middlesex, and where he was then Surveyor.
The
Foundation being all made firm, and levelled, the Master-Bricklayer, or his Foreman, must take care to see all the
Foundations set truly out, according to the design of the Ground-plat, or Cellar-floor, and that all his Walls be made of the same thickness as they are in the Design; which is very difficult to do, to wit, to take the true thickness of the Walls from a Design that is drawn to a small Scale, because the breadth of the Points of the Compasses will vary somewhat; therefore 'tis advisable for him that draws the Draught, to set the Dimensions in Figures to each Wall, Chimney, Window,
&c. and then the Workman cannot so easily make a Mistake.
And because the well-working and bonding of Brick-walls conduces very much to their strength, I will here add some some necessary Rules to be observed in the laying of Bricks, to make the Walls and strong and durable.
[Page 258]First. That the Morter be made of well burnt good Lime, and sharp Sand, and that it have a due proportion of Sand, that is to say, if it be very sharp, a Load of Sand, being about 36 Bushels, is sufficient for an Hundred of Lime, being 25 Bushels, or an hundred Pecks, (for I imagine that the word
Hundred of Lime is used, because it contains an Hundred Pecks, and that in Old Time they used to sell it by the Peck, but now by the Bushel) to wit, to one Bushel of Quick Lime, a Bushel and half of Sand.
But if the Sand be not very sharp, then you may put a greater quantity of Sand, for Morter which hath its due proportion of Sand, is stronger than that which hath less Sand in it, altho' some think otherwise.
Secondly, When you slack the Lime, take care to wet it every where a little, but do not overwet it, and cover with Sand every laying, or bed of Lime, being about a Bushel at a time as you slack it up, that so the Stream, or Spirit of the Lime, may be kept in, and not flee away, but mix it self with the Sand, which will make the Morter much stronger, than if you slack all your Lime first, and throw on your Sand altogether at last, as some use to do.
Thirdly, That you beat all your Morter with a Beater three or four times over before you use it, for thereby you break all the Knots of Lime that go through the Sieve, and incorporate the Sand and Lime well together, and the Air which the Beater forces into the Morter at every stroak, conduces very much to the strength thereof.
[Page 259]If I might advise any one that is minded to build well, or use strong Morter for Repairs, I would have them beat the Morter well, and let it lie 2 or 3 Days, and then beat it well again when 'tis to be used.
Fourthly, If you lay bricks in hot dry Weather, and be it some small piece of Work that you would have very strong, dip every Brick you lay, all over in a Pale of Water, which will make the Wall much stronger than if the Bricks were laid dry: The reason why I mention a small piece of Work is, because 'tis a great deal of trouble to wet them for much Work, or a whole Building, and besides it makes the Workmen's Fingers sore; to prevent which, they may throw Pales of Water on the Wall after the Bricks are lay'd, as was done at the building of
Physicians College in
Warwick-Lane, by order of the Surveyor, which was the aforesaid Ingenious Mr.
Hook, if I mistake not.
Fifthly, Cover all your Walls in the Summer-time to keep them from drying too hastily, for the Morter doth not Cement so str
[...]ngly to the Bricks when it dries hastily, as when slowly.
Sixthly, Be sure to cover them very well in the Winter-time, to preserve them from Rain, Snow and Frost, which last is a great Enemy to all kinds of Morter, especially to that which hath
[...]aken wet just before the Frost.
Seventhly, In working up the Walls of a Building, do not work any Wall above 3 foot high before you work up the next adjoining Wall, that so you may join them together, and make
[Page 260] good Bond in the Work: For 'tis an ill Custom among some
Bricklayers, to carry, or work up a whole Story of the Party-walls, before they work up the Fronts, or other Work adjoining, that should be bonded or worked up together with them, which occasions Cracks and Setlings in the Walls.
Eightly, Take care that you do not lay Joint on Joint, in the middle of the Walls as seldom as may be, but make bond there as well as on the outsides; for I have seen some, who in working of a Brick and half Wall, have laid the Header on one side of the Wall, upright upon the Header on the other side of the Wall, and so all along through the whole course, which indeed necessarily follows from the inconsiderate setting up of the Quine at a Toothing; for 'tis common to Tooth in the stretching course two Inches with the Stretcher only, and the Header on the other side, to be set upright upon the Header on this side, which causes the Headers to lye Joint in Joint in the middle of the Wall, as in
Plate 3.
Fig. 1. you may see.
Whereas if the Header of one side of the Wall, toothed as much as the Stretcher on the other side, it would be a stronger Toothing, and the Joints of the Headers of one side, would be in the middle of the Headers of the course they lye upon of the other side, as in
Plate 3.
Fig. 2.
All that can be said for this ill Custom of working, is this, that the Header will not well hang two Inches over the Bricks underneath it; I grant it will not, but then it may be made, by having a piece of Fir, or any other Wood of the thickness of a Course of Bricks, and two
[Page 261] Inches broad, and lay it on the last Toothing Course to bear it; or a
Bat, put upon the last Toothing, will bear it till the next
Quine is set upon it, and then the
Bat may be taken away.
Ninthly, The same Inconveniency happens at an upright
Quine in a
Brick and half Wall, where 'tis usual to lay a Closier next the Header on both sides of the Wall, and in so doing 'tis Joint in Joint all the length of the Wall, except by chance a three quartern Bat happen to be laid.
To prevent which Inconveniency, and to make the Wall much stronger, lay a Closure on one side, and none on the other; but lay a three quarter Bat at the Quine in the stretching course, and in the Heading course adjoin an Header next to the Header at the Quine, as you may see it done in Plate 3.
Fig. 1. and 2.
Where A and B in both Figures or Diagrams, represents a Brick and half Wall, having an upright Quine at A, and a Toothing at B, and the Prick Lines represents the Course of Bricks laid upon the other course; so in
Fig. 1. the black Lines next you are an heading course, and the Prick-lines next you, shew a Stretching course; And on the further side from you, the black Lines shew a stretching course, and the Prick-Lines an Heading course.
In which
Fig. 1. is shewn the usual way of bad Working, but in
Fig. 2. is shewn the true way it should be wrought, to be made firm and strong.
Also in working a two Brick Wall, I would advise in the Stretching courses, wherein you lay stretching on both sides the Wall next the Line, so also to lay stretching in the middle of the Wall, and Closiers next to each stretching Course that lies next the Line, as in
Fig. 3. of
Plate 3. you may see.
[Page 262]Where the Diagram or Fig. AB, signifies a two
[...]rick Wall, A being an upright Quine, and B the Toothing, in which, the black lines represent the stretching course, and the Prickt Lines the Heading course, that lies upon the stretching course: In a two Brick Wall if you lay a closier next the upright Quine on both sides of the Wall, it makes good Bond.
Tenthly, In Summer time use your Morter as soft as you can, but in the Winter time pretty stiff or hard.
Eleventhly, If you build in the City of
London, you must make all your Walls of such thicknesses as the Act of Parliament for rebuilding of the said City enjoyns, but in other places you may use your Discretion.
And because the Act of Parliament may not be in every Builders hands, I will therefore Incert so much of it as relates to
Brickl
[...]yers Work, to wit, the Heights and number of Stories, and the Thickness of Walls of the four several sorts of Buildings, which is as follows.
And be it further Enacted, That the said Houses of the First and least sort of Building Fronting by Streets or Lanes, as aforesaid, shall be of two Stories high, besides Cellars and Garrats; That the Cellars thereof 6 Foot and an half high, if the Springs of Water hinder not; and the First Story be 9 Foot high from the Floor to the Seeling; and the second Story 9 Foot high from the Floor to the Seeling; that all Walls in Front and Reer as high as the first Story, be o
[...] the full thickness of the length of two Bricks, and thence upwards to the Garrats of the thickness
[Page 263] of one Brick and an half; and that the thickness of the Garrat Walls on the back part, be left to the Discretion of the Builder, so that the same be not less than the length of one Brick; and also that the thickness of the party Walls between these Houses of the First and lesser sort of Building, be one Brick and ½ as high as the said Garrats, and that the thickness of the party Wall in the Garrat, be of the thickness of the length of one Brick at the least.
And be further Enacted, That the Houses of the second sort of Building fronting Streets and Lanes of Note, and the River of
Thames, shall consist of three Stories high, besides Cellars and Garrats as aforesaid; that the Cellars thereof
[...]e 6 Foot and ½ high, (if the Springs hinder not) that the first Story contain full 10 Foot in height from the Floor to the Seeling: The second full 10 Foot, the third 9 Foot; that all the said Walls in Front and Reer, as high as the first Story, be two Bricks and ½ thick, and from thence upwards to the Garrat Floor, of one Brink and ½ thick; and the thickness of the Garrat Walls on the back part be left to the discreation of the Builder, so that the same be not less than one Brick thick: And also that the thickness of the party-walls between every House of this second, and larger sort of Building, be two Bricks thick as high as the first Story, and thence upwards to the Garrats, of the thickness of one Brick and ½.
Also, that the Houses of the third sort of
Buildings, fronting the high and principle Streets, shall consist of 4 Stories high, besides Cellars and Garrats as aforesaid: That the first Story contain full 10 foot in height from the Floor to the Seeling; the second 10 foot and ½; the third
[Page 264] 9 foot; the fourth 8 foot and ½: That all the said Walls in Front and Reer, as high as the first Story, be of two Bricks and ½ in thickness, and from thence upwards to the Garrat Floor, of the thickness of one Brick ½: That the thickness of the Garrat Walls on the back part be left
[...] the discretion of the Builder, so as the same be not less than one Brick: And also that the Party-walls between every House, of this third and larger sort of Building, be two Bricks thick as high as the first Floor, and thence upwards to Garrat Floor, the 1 ½ Brick in thickness.
And,
Be it further Enacted, That all Houses of the fourth sort of Building, being Mansion Houses, and of the greatest bigness, not fronting upon any of the Streets or Lanes as aforesaid; the number of Stories, and the Height thereof, shall be left to the discretion of the Builder, so as he exceeds not four Stories.
Also, the same Act enjoins, That no Timber be laid within 12 Inches of the foreside of the Chimny Jambs; and that all Joysts on the back of any Chimny be laid with a Trimmer, at six Inches distant from the back: Also, that no Timber be laid within the Tunnel of any Chimny, upon penalty to the Workman for every Default ten Shillings, and ten Shillings every week it continues unreform'd.
Twelfthly, When you lay any Timber on Brick-work, as Torsels for Mantle-Trees to lye on, or Lintols over Windows, or Templets under Girders, or any other Timbers, lay them in Loam, which is a great preserver of Timber, for Morter eats and corrodes the Timber: Likewise the Joyst ends, and Girders which lye in the Walls▪ must be Loamed all over, to preserve them from
[Page]
[figure]
[Page 265] the corroding of the Morter. Some Workmen pitch the ends of the Timber that lye in the Walls to preserve them from the Morter.
In the next place you shall have the Ground Plat of a Building, and its Explanation.
IN Plate 4, you have the Draught of a Ground Plat of a Building, which is 25 Feet, both in the Front and Reer Front; and 40 Feet in the Flank or Depth: The Front and Reer Front Walls, are 2 Bricks and ½ in thickness; the Flank Walls are 2 Bricks in thickness, as you may prove by the Scale of Feet and Inches annext to the Design.
You may imagine this Design to be the Ground Floor, having no Cellar beneath it: And the height of the Story between the Floor and the Seeling to be 10 Foot; and because we do suppose this Building to have Houses adjoining it on each side, therefore we have drawn the Stair-case with an open Nuel to give light to the Stairs; but if the House had stood by it self, without other Houses adjoyning, then we might have had light to the Stairs from the Flank Wall.
Explanation of the Design.
F. The Front.
R. Reer Front.
B. Flank Walls.
A. Piers of Brick.
W. Windows of Timber.
D. Door-cases of Timber.
O. Chimneys.
C. Jambs of Chimneys.
[Page 266]H. Open Nuel to give light to the Stairs.
K. Clossets.
L. A Brick and half Wall between the Clossets.
a. Funnels or Tunnels of Chimneys.
1.2.3.4,
&c. Steps of Stairs called Fliers.
8.9.10,
&c. Steps of Stairs called Winders.
e. Timber Partitions.
The Scale contains 32 Feet, with a Diagonal Line to shew the Inches in a Foot: For Example, if you would take of 8 Inches, take the Interval from 8 in the Horizontal Line to the Diagonal Line, and that is 8 Inches: From 3 in the Horizontal Line to the Diagonal Line, is 3 Inches, and so of the rest.
In the next
Plate you have the Orthography, or upright of this Ground Plat, and this the Explanation thereof, with a Scale of Feet and Inches annext thereto,
[Page 267]The Scale of Feet and Inches being the same, as in the Ground Plat of
Plate 4. I need not say any thing concerning it, because I have there shewn the use of it.
And although I have in this Design, drawn the Fascias plain without any Mouldings, yet sometimes they are made with Mouldings, which shew very neat and handsome, I have therefore in
Plate 6. given you a Design of a Brick Fascia, wrought with Mouldings, in which Design
S. Is Scima reversa.
O. Joints of Morter.
P. Plain Courses.
A. Astragal.
B. Ovolo, or Boltel, reversed.
In the same
Plate, you have the design of a Brick Cornice, and the Names of the Mouldings, are
A. Scima recta, or Ogee.
O. Joint of Morter.
B. Scima reversa, or Scimatium.
C. Corona, or Plancheer.
D. Ovolo, or Boltel.
E. Cavetto, or Casement.
In which Cornice, the Corona, or Planch
[...]er, ought (according to the Rules of Architecture) to Sail over, or project more; but the length of a Brick being but about 8 Inches when its head is rubbed for hewing, it will not hang, if it sail over, more than is shewn in the Draught, which is about 3 Inches and an half. But if you would make it to project more, then you must Cement pieces to the ends of your bricks for railing,
[Page 268] or to make them longer: Of which Cement there is two sorts, one is called cold Cement, and the other is hot, the making and use whereof, we will shew towards the latter end.
To describe Mouldings on Wainscot, or Pastboard, for Patterns, to cut Bricks by.
There are two ways to describe the Hollows, and rounds of Moulding in Fascias, or Cornices; one from the
oxi, or
oxigonium, the other from the
half round, or
Semicircle, that makes the Moulding flatter, this more circular; I will shew both ways, and then you may make use of which you please.
First, We will describe a Cavetto, or Casement, both ways.
In
Plate 7. the
Fig. 1. is described from the
oxi, in this manner, having allowed the projecture of the Moulding at the bottom, and the Fillet at top, draw the Line
ab, then with the Compasses taking the interval
ab, place one point of the Compasses in
a, and with the other describe the Arch
dd; then with one Foot in
b, with the other describe the Arch
cc, and where these two Arches intersect each other, there is the Center to describe the Cavetto; then fixing one Foot in the Center, extend the other to
a or
b, and describe the Arch
agb.
You may describe it from a Semicircle thus: In
Fig. 2. having allowed the Projecture at bottom, and the Fillet at top, as before, draw the Line
ab, bisect, or middle it, as at
c, then upon
c as a center, with the Interval
ca, or
cb, describe the Semicircle
adb, and bisect it in
d, which is the Center to describe the Cavetto, or Casement by; then fixing one point of the Compasses
[Page]
[figure]
[Page 269] in
d, extend the other to
a or
b, and describe the Arch
agb.
To describe the
Scima Recta, or
Ogee, both ways.
Fig. 3. is described by the
Oxi in this manner; having allowed the Fillet at top
af, draw the Line
ab, and bisect it, that is, part it in the middle in
e; then with your Compasses take the Interval
eb, and fixing one point in
e, with the other describe the Arch
cc, then with the same Interval, or distance, fixing one point in
b, with the other, describe the Arch
dd, and where these two Arches Intersect, or cut each other, there is the Center to discribe the round, or lower part of the
Ogee, to wit,
ehb: Then fixing one point of the Compasses on the Intersection by
d, extend the other to
b, or
e, and describe the Arch
ehb: Then to describe the Hollow, or upper part of the
Ogee, take with your Compasses the Distance, or Interval
ea, and fixing one point in
e, with the other describe the Arch
cc, then keeping the Compasses, at the same distance, fix one foot in
a, and with the other describe the Arch
dd, intersecting the other Arch in
g: Then fixing one Foot in
g, extend the other to
e or
a, and describe the Arch
eha, which compleats the
Scima recta, or
Ogee.
To describe the same
Ogee by a Semicircle. Fig. 4.
1. After you have allowed the Fillet
af, draw the Line
ab.
2. Bisect the Line in
s.
3. Bisect
eb and
sa, as at
cc.
4. On the Center
c. with the Interval
ca, describe the Semicircle
sda.
5. Middle it, as at
d.
6. Fixing one point in
d. extend the other to
a or
s, and describe the Arch
ahs.
7. On the Center
c, with the distance
cb, describe the Semicircle
bds.
8. Middle it, as at
d.
9. Fix one Foot in
d, and extend the other to
b or
s.
10. Describe the Arch
bhs, which compleats the
Scima Recta, or
Ogee; and after either of these ways, which you like best, you may describe any other Moulding.
And because many times
Bricklayers make Archytrave Jambs and Arches, about Windows and Door-cases in a Front, I will therefore delineat an Archytrave to be cut in the length of a Brick; which is most usual, although you may make your Archytrave larger, and cut it in the length of one Brick and an half.
In
Plate 7.
Fig. 5. you have Delineated the Ground Plat of an Archytrave Jamb, to be cut in the length of a Brick, which suppose to be FG, and also Imagine FEG to be a Stretcher, or a Stretching Archytrave: Also you may understand the design to be divided in the middle by the two Prick Lines on each side E, which represents a Joint of Morter, and imagining it
[Page]
[figure]
[Page 271] to be thus divided; then EF is called a Header; or a heading Archytrave, and EG is called a
[...]ak.
Here follows the Names of the several parts of the Archytrave.
A. Fillet.
B. Scima.
C. Upper Fascia.
D. Lower Fascia.
I did intend here to have added something about the Arching of Vaults, but intending, God willing, to treat largely of the Description of all manner of Arches, and making of Moulds, or Patterns, to cut them by, when I come to exercise in
Masonry, which will succeed this: I shall therefore omit speaking of Vaults in this Exercise.
I shall now in the next place shew how to describe any Ellipsis Arch in Brick; and make the Moulds, as also to describe streight Arches▪ and make the Moulds for the same.
To describe an
Oval to any Length and Breadth given.
An
Ellipsis Arch is an half Oval: Therefore in
Plate 8.
Fig. 1. let the length given be AB, and the Breadth CD.
Apply the two given Lines together, so that they may cut each other into two equal parts, and at right angles in the point E, then take half the line AB, between your Compasses, and setting one point of the Compasses in C, extend the other till it touch the line AB, in K and L,
[Page 272] which two points are called the
Focasses, o
[...] burning points, in which points drive two Nails, if you describe it on Boards, but upon Paper, as here two Pins will do; the Pins being stuck fast in the points K and L, stick also another Pin in the Point C, then take a Thread, and Encompass these 3 Pins in form of a Triangle, pulling the Thread tight, tye the two ends of the Thread together, by a knot at C, then taking out the Pin at C, take a Pencil of Black-Lead, holding it close to the inside of the Thread, and carrying the Pencil round upon the Paper, about the Pins, with the Thread always streight, the
Ellipsis or
Oval ACBD, will be thereby described.
Another way to describe the same. Here I shall only describe a
Semi-Oval, being an Ellipsis Arch.
In
Fig. 2. let the length given be AB, and the Semidiameter or height of the Arch CD; Divide AB into seven equal parts, then upon one seventh part from A as at E, raise a Perpendicular from the Line AB, (viz. EG.) also at one seventh part from B, as at F, raise another Perpendicular FH; then divide the Semidiameter given CD, into 15 equal Parts, and take Eleven of those Parts, and set upon the Perpendicular from E to G, and likewise from F to H; then taking the space between A and G, setting one point of the Compasses in A, describe the Arch G
i, keeping the Compasses at the same distance, set one point in G, and describe another Arch, which will cut the former in the point by
i; from which point, with the Radius
[Page 273] A
i, describe the
Hanse AG; this being done, take between your Compasses the space BH, and setting one point in B, describe the arch I
i, then remove your Compasses to H, and intersect that Arch in the point by
i, then setting your Compasses on the point
i, with the same distance, describe a part of the
Ellipsis BH, which is called the
Hanse: The other part to be described from G to H, is called the
Scheam, which to describe, continue or draw longer the Semi-diameter DC, and in that line find a Center, whereon setting one point of the Compasses, the other point may touch the three points GDH, as on the Center I; whereby describe the
Scheam GDH, which was to be done.
These
Ellipsis, or
Semi-Oval Arches, being neatly wrought in Brick, shew very pleasant, and are sometimes made over Gate-ways, and also over Kitchin-Chimnies, instead of Mantle-trees.
We will suppose an Ellipsis Arch to be made over a Chimny, whose Diameter between the Jambs is eight feet, and the under side of the Arch at the Key to rise in height 18 Inches from the level of the place, whence you begin to spring the Arch; the height or depth of the Arch we will suppose to be made of the length of two Bricks, which when they are cut to the sweep of the Arch, will not contain above 14 Inches, and perhaps you must Cement pieces to many of the Courses in the Hanse to make them long enough to contain, or hold 14 Inches, especially if you intend to make the Courses of the Hanse, and the Courses of the Scheam to seem alike in greatness, on the under side of the Arch; For if you make the Hanse to come to a true Sommering for the Scheam, by that time that
[Page 274] you have ended the Hanse, and are ready to set the first Courses of the Scheam: The Mould, and so likewise each Course in the Hanse, will be much less at the lower part, or under side of the Arch, than the Mould, or Courses of the Scheam, as you may perceive by the Hanse BK, in the 3d.
Fig. which way of working these kind of Arches is stronger, than to make the Courses seem alike in bigness in Hanse and Scheam, although it be not so pleasing to the eye. In the 3d.
Fig. I will shew how to make one half of the Arch this way, and in the other half shew how to make the Courses in Hanse and Scheam of a bigness.
First, Describe the under side of the Arch, (
viz. the Ellipsis ADB, whose Diameter AB is eight feet, and the height CD 18 Inches) upon some smooth Floor, or streight plaistered Wall, or such like; then continue (
viz. draw longer) both the lines AB, CD, cutting each other at right Angles, then from A to E, also from B to F, likewise from D to G, set 14 Inches, the intended height of your Arch. Then describe another Ellipsis to that length and height, after this manner; lay a streight Ruler on the Centre by I, and on the joining of the Hanse, and the Scheam together, as at K, and draw the line KL, then set one point of your Compasses in the centre of the Hanse at M, and open the other point of the Compasses to F, and describe the upper Hanse FL, likewise setting one point of the Compasses in the centre by I, with the other extended to G, describe the Scheam GL, (although I speak here of Compasses, yet when you describe an Arch to its full bigness, you must make use of centre Lines or
[Page 275] Rules; the last are best, because Lines are subject to stretch) then taking between your Compasses the thickness of a Brick, abating some small matter which will be rub'd off from both beds of the Brick; with the Compasses at this distance divide the upper Hanse from L to F into equal parts, and if they happen not to divide it into equal parts, then open them a small matter wider, or shut them a small matter closer, till it doth divide it into equal parts, and look how many equal parts you divide the upper Hanse into, so many equal parts you must divide the lower Hanse from K to B into likewisewise (or you may divide the upper Hanse from the centre O, making a right Angle from each sommering Line to the Ellipsis, as is shewn in describing the streight Arches following; and from the centre O, and the Divisions in the upper Hanse being thus divided, you may draw the streight Lines to the lower Hanse, and not divide it with the Compasses) through each of which divisions with a Rule, and Pencil, draw streight lines, then get a piece of thin Wainscot, and make it to fit between two of these Lines, allowing what thickness for Morter you intend, this will be the Sommering Mould for the Hanse; then divide the upper Scheam likewise, with the Compasses at the same distance into equal parts, and laying a Ruler on the centre I, from each Division in the Scheam GL, draw streight Lines to the lower Scheam DK, then make another Sommering Mould to fit between two of these Lines, abating so much as you intend the thickness of your Joints of Morter to be, which if you set very close Morters, the breadth of the Line will be enough to allow; then laying the inner Edge of
[Page 276] a Bevil streight on the line KL, bring the Tongue to touch the under side of the first Course of the Scheam, then take up the Bevil, and set that Bevil line upon the Sommering Mould of the Scheam; which Bevil line serves for each Course in the Scheam; but you must take the Bevil of each Course in the Hanse, and set them upon your Sommering Mould by themselves, and Number them with 1, 2, 3, 4,
&c. because each Course varies.
Thus having made your Sommering Moulds, in the next place you must make the Moulds for the length of your Stretchers, and for the breadth of the Headers and the Closiers; a piece of Wainscot seven Inches long, and three Inches and an half broad will serve for the length of the Stretchers, and the breadth of the Headers, the Closiers will be 1 Inch and ¾. broad. So the Closier will be half the breadth of the Header, and the Header half the length of the Stretcher, which will look well.
It remains now to speak something to the other part of the Arch, to wit, AD, whose Courses both in
Hanse and
Scheam, run alike upon the
Ellipsis Lines, and seem of one bigness, although perhaps there may be some small matter of difference, by reason I have not divided the Courses to this Figure, from a right Angle, but every Course from the Angle, which it makes with the
Ellipsis, which I chose rather to do, that so the
Bevil of one Course, might not seem to run more upon the
Ellipsis than the
Bevil of another, and the difference of the thicknesses being so inconsiderate, is not discerned.
[Page 277]Having described both the
Ellipsis lines AD, EG, divide each of them into a like number of equal parts, always remembring to make each Division on the upper
Ellipsis line, no greater than the thickness of the Brick will contain, when it is wrought; then through each Division in both the
Ellipses draw streight lines; continuing them four or five Inches above the upper
Ellipsis Line, and as much below the lower
Ellipsis Line; then having provided some thin Sheets of fine Pastboard about 20 Inches square, cutting one edge streight, take one sheet and lay the streight edge even upon the line AE, so that it may cover both the Ellipsis lines, and being cut to advantage, it may cover eight courses (or nine of the streight Lines) having laid it thus upon the figure of the Arch, stick a Pin, or two, through it, to keep it in its place; then lay a Ruler upon the Past-board true to the 7, 8, or 9th. streight Line of the Arch, according as the Past-board is in bigness to cover them, and take a sharp Pen-knife, laying the Ruler upon the Past-board true to the streight Line (whose ends being continued longer than the Arch is deep, as I directed before, will be seen beyond the Past-board) and cut the Past-board true to the Line, then take another sheet, and join to it, and cut it as you did the first, so continue till you have covered the Arch from AE, just to the line DG, sticking Pins in each Sheet to keep them in the places where you lay them: Then describe both the Ellipsis Lines upon the Past-board, from the same Centres and Radii that you described the Ellipsis's under the Past-board, and either divide the Ellipsis Lines with the Compasses on the Past-board, or else draw lines
[Page 278] upon the Past-board from or by the streight lines underneath them whose ends you see; but the surer way is to divide the Ellipsis's on the Past-board, and draw Lines through those Divisions, as you did beneath the Past-board; then set seven Inches, being the length of each Stretcher, from A towards E, and from D toward
[...] G. and describe from the former Centres, the
[...]oo through each other course on the Past-
[...]oard, as you may see in the
Fig. also set three Inches and an half, being the breadth
[...] Header, from A towards E, and
[...] from D towards G: Also set the
[...]ame three Inches and an half from E towards A, and from G towards D, and describe these two Ellipsis lines from the same Centres thro' each Course, which the Ellipsis line of the Stretchers miss'd; likewise draw in the same Courses, two other Ellipsis lines, one Inch and
[...] from each of those two Lines you drew last, which is the breadth of the Closiers; thus one Course of the Arch will be divided into two Stretchers, and the next to it into three Headers and two Closiers through the whole Arch; this being done, cut the Past-board according to the lines into several Courses, and each other Course into two Stretchers, and the Heading-courses into three Headers, and two Closiers, exactly according to the Sweep of the Black-lead lines, and mark each Course with Figures, marking the first Course of the Hanse with 1, the next with 2, the third with 3, and so continue till you have marked all the Courses to the Key, or middle, for every Course differs; you were best to mark the lower Closier in each course with a Cipher on the left hand of its own number, that you may know it readily from the
[Page 279] upper Closier, and make no mistakes when you come to set them; also the middle Headers in each Course should be marked besides its own number; the thickness of the upper Header being easily discerned from the lower Header needs no marking besides its own number; the cross Joints, and likewise the under side and upper side of each Course must be
[...] circular, as the Past-boards which are your Moulds direct you.
If you will add a Keystone, and Chaptrels to the Arch, as in the
Figure, let the breadth of the upper part of the Keystone be the height of the Arch,
viz. 14 Inches, and Sommer, from the Centre at I, then make your Chaptrels the same thickness that your lower part of the Keystone is, and let the Keystone break without the Arch, so much as you project or Sale over the Jaums with the Chaptrels.
Other kind of
Circular Arches, as half Rounds and Scheams, being described from one Centre, are so plain and easy, that I need say nothing concerning them▪ But since
Streight Arches are much used, and many Workmen know not the true way of describing them, I shall write something briefly concerning them.
Streight Arches are used generally over Windows and Doors, according to the breadth of the Piers between the Windows, so ought the Skew-back or Sommering of the Arch to be; for if the Piers be of a good breadth, as three or four Bricks in length, then the
Streight Arch may be described (as its vulgarly said) from the
Oxi, which being but part of a Word, is taken from the word
Oxigonium, signifying an Equilateral Triangle,
[Page 280] with three sharp Angles; but if the Piers are small, as sometimes they are but the length of two Bricks, and sometimes but one Brick and an half, then the breadth of the Window, or more, may be set down upon the middle Line for the Centre, which will give a less Skew-back, or Sommering, than the centre from an
Oxi. I will shew how to describe them both ways, and first from the
Oxi.
Suppose a
Streight Arch, one Brick and an half in height, to be made over a Window, 4 feet in width. [See
Fig. 4.] wherein one half of the Arch is described from the
Oxi, and the other half from the width of the Window, let the width of the Window be AB, taking the width between the Compasses, from A and B as two Centres, describe the two Arches, intersecting each other at P, (though I speak here of Compasses, yet when you describe the Arch to its full bigness, you must use a Ruler, or a Line, scarce any Compasses being to be got large enough.) Then draw another Line above the line AB, as the line CD, being parallel to it, at such a height as you intend your Arch to be, as in this
Fig. at 12 Inches; but most commonly these sort of Arches are but 11 Inches in the height, or thereabouts, which answers to four Courses of Bricks, but you may make them more or less in height according as occasion requires; then laying a Ruler on the centre P, and on the end of the line A, draw the line AC, which is vulgarly called the
Skew-back for the Arch.
The next thing to be done, is to divide those two lines AB and CD into so many Courses
[Page 281] as the Arch will contain; the thickness of a Brick being one of them, which some do by dividing the upper line into so many equal parts, and from those parts, and from the Centre P, draw the Sommering Lines or Courses; others divide both the upper and lower line into so many equal parts, and make no use of a Centre, but draw the Courses by a Ruler, being laid from the Divisions on the upper line, to the Divisions on the lower line, both which ways are false and erroneous; [but this by way of caution.]
Having drawn the
Skew-back AC, take between your Compasses the thickness that a Brick will contain, which I suppose to be two Inches when it is rub'd, and setting one point of the Compasses on the line CD. So that when you turn the other Point about, it may just touch the line AC in one place, and there make a Prick in the line CD, but do not draw the Sommering lines until you have gone over half the Arch, to see how you come to the Key, or middle; and if you happen to come just to the middle line, or want an Inch of it, then you may draw the lines, but if not, then you must open, or shut the Compasses a little till you do.
Then keeping one end of the Rule close to the Centre at P. (the surest way is to strike a small Nail in the Centre P. and keep the Rule close to the Nail) lay the other end of the Rule close to the Prick that you made on the line CD, keeping the Compasses at the same width (
viz. two Inches) set one point of the Compasses on the line CD, as before, so that
[Page 282] the other Point being turned about, may just pass by the Rule; and as it were touch it in one place; (you must remove the point of the Compasses upon the line CD, farther or nearer to the Rule, until it just touch the Rule in one place,) and so continue with the Rule and Compasses, until you come to the middle line, and if it happen, that your last space want an Inch of the middle, then the middle of the Key-course will be the middle of the Arch, and the number of the Courses in the whole Arch will be odd, but if the last space happen to fall just upon the middle line EF, as it doth in the
Fig. then the Joint is the middle of the Arch, (but if it should happen neither to come even to the line, nor want an Inch of it, then you must open or shut the Compasses a small matter, and begin again till it doth come right) and the number of the Courses in the whole Arch, is an even Number.
Note, When the number of all the Courses in the Arch, is an even Number, then you must begin the two sides contrary,
viz. A Header to be the lower Brick of the first Course on one side (or half) of the Arch, and a Stretcher the lower Brick of the first Course on the other side (or half) of the Arch: And contrariwise, if it happen that the Number of the Courses be an odd Number, as 25 or 27, or such like, then the first Courses of each half of the Arch, must be alike, that is, either both Headers, or both Stretchers, at the bottom.
Thus having described the Arch, the next thing to be done, is to make the Sommering Mould, which to do, get a piece of thin Wainscot
[Page 283] (being streight on one edge, and having one side plained smooth, to set the Bevil strokes upon) about 14 Inches long, and any breadth above two Inches, then laying your Ruler, one end at the Centre P, and the other end even in the Skew-back line, clap the streight edge of the Wainscot close to the Rule, so that the lower end of the Wainscot may lye a little below the line AB, then take away the Centre Rule, but stir not the Wainscot; and laying a Ruler upon the Wainscot just over the line CD, strike a line upon the Wainscot, then set one Point of the Compasses being at the width of a Course (
viz. two Inches) upon that line, so that the other Point being turned about, may just touch the streight edge of the Wainscot; (as you did before in dividing the Courses) then make a Prick on the line on the Wainscot, and laying your Centre Rule upon it, and on the Centre P, draw a line upon the Wainscot by the Ruler, with a Pencil, or the Point of a Compass, and cut the Wainscot to that line, and make it streight by shooting it with a Plain, then your Wainscot will fit exactly between any two lines of the Arch; you may let it want the thickness of one of the lines, or some small matter more, which is enough for the thickness of a Mortar; the length of your Stretcher in this Arch, may be 8 Inches and ¼, and the Header 3 Inches and ¾, but if your Arch be but 11 Inches in height, then make your Stretcher 7 Inches and ½ long, and the Header 3 Inches ½; one piece of Wainscot will serve both for the length of the Stretcher, and the length of the Header, making it like a long square or Oblong, whose sides are 8 Inches ¼, and 3 Inches and ¾. Then take a Bevil, and laying
[Page 284] the inner edge of it streight with the line AB, and the Angle of the Bevil just over the Angle at A, take off the Angle that the Skew-back line AC makes with the line AB, and set it upon the smoothed side of your Sommering Mould, for the Bevil stroke of your first Course; then drawing your Bevil towards E, streight in the line, until the Angle of the Bevil be just over the Angle, that the second Sommering line makes with the line AB; when it is so, draw the Tongue of the Bevil to lye even upon the second Sommering line; (in brief, cause the Bevil to lye exactly on the line AB, and on the second Sommering line) then take up your Bevil and lay it on the Mould; and strike that Bevil line on the Mould, with the Point of the Compasses, about half a quarter of an Inch distant from the first, and that is the Bevil of the underside of the second Course; proceed thus until you come to the middle line EF, but after you have set three Bevil lines upon your Sommering Mould, leave about ¼ of an Inch between the third and the fourth, and so likewise between the 6th and 7th, and the 9th, and 10th, which will be a great help to you, in knowing the Number of each line on the Mould.
The Moulds for the other half of the Arch, namely EB, are made after the same manner, but but the Arch is described from a Centre beneath P, as Q which causeth a less Skew-back (
viz. B. D.)
The diminishing of the Sommering Mould to any Skew-back may be found by the Rule of Three, by dividing a foot into 10 equal parts,
[Page 285] and each of these into 10 parts, so that the whole foot may contain 100 parts, then proceed thus. The upper line CF, will be 309, that is three Feet and almost one Inch, and the lower line AE will be 252, that is two Feet and an half an 2/100, and the upper part of the Sommering Mould will be 17 almost, that is, two Inches of such whereof there are 12 in a foot line measure; having these three Numbers (viz. 309, 252, 17.) work according to the Rule of Three, and you will find 13 and 6/1 of 100 parts, that is almost 14 (such parts whereof there are 100 in a Foot line measure) for the breadth of the lower part of the Mould.
Yau may likewise find it Geometrically thus.
HAving drawn the upper line and under line of the Arch, as CF, and AE, and drawn any Skew-back, as suppose AC in [
Fig. 4.] make at discretion the Angle GCH in [
Fig. 5.] then take the upper line CF, and set it from C. to F; also take the lower line AE, and set it from C to E, and draw the line EF; then take the thickness of your Brick, which suppose to be two Inches, and set it from F to G, and draw GH, parallel to FE, I say FG is the breadth of the upper part of the Sommering Mould, and EH the breadth of the lower part: Then make your Sommering Mould true to those two lines, and beginning in the middle line FE, describe the streight lines by the Mould from the Key FE, until you come to the Skew-back AC, and then take of the Bevil lines, and set them on your Sommering Mould.
I shall conclude this Exercise with the Art of making two sorts of Cements, for the Cementing Bricks.
THere are two sorts of Cement, which some Bricklayers use in Cementing of Bricks for some kind of Mouldings, or in Cementing a block of Bricks, as they call it, for the Carving of Scroles or Capitals or such like,
&c. One is called cold Cement, the other is called hot Cement, because the former is made and used without Fire, but the latter is both made and used with Fire; the cold Cement being accounted a Secret, is known but to few Bricklayers, but the hot Cement is common.
To make the cold Cement.
TAke ½ a Pound of Old Cheshire-Cheese, pair of the Rine, and throw it away, cut or grate the Cheese very small, and put it into a Pot, put to it about a Pint of Cows-milk, let it stand all Night, the next Morning get the Whites of 12 or 14 Eggs, then take ½ a Pound of the best Unslackt or Quick Lime that you can get, and beat it to Powder in a Morter, then sift it through a fine Hair Sieve into a Tray or Bole of Wood, or into an Earthen Dish, to which put the Cheese and Milk, and stir them well together with a Trowel, or such like thing, breaking the Knots of Cheese, if there be any, then add the Whites of the Eggs, and Temper all well together, and so use it; this Cement will be a White Colour, but if you would have it of the Colour of the Brick, put into it either some very fine Brick-Dust, or Almegram, not too much, but only just to colour it.
TAke one Pound of Rozin, one Quarter of a Pound of Bees-Wax, half an Ounce of fine Brick-Dust, half an Ounce of Chalk-Dust, or Powder of Chalk, sift both the Brick-Dust and Chalk-Dust through a fine Hair Sieve, (you may beat the Brick and the Chalk in a Morter, before you sift it) boil altogether in a Pipkin, or other Vessel, about a quarter of an hour, stirring it all the while with an Iron or a piece of Lath or such like, then take it of, and let it stand 4 or 5 Minutes, and 'tis fit for use.
Note, That the Bricks that are to be Cemented with this kind of Cement, must be made hot by the Fire before you spread the Cement on them, and then rub them to and fro on one another, as Joiners do, when they Glew two Boards together.
Mechanick Dyalling: TEACHING Any Man, tho' of an Ordinary Capacity and unlearned in the Mathematicks, To Draw a True SUN-DYAL ON ANY GIVEN PLANE, However Scituated: Only with the help of a straight
Rule and a pair of
Compasses; and without any Arithmetical Calculation.
The Fourth Edition.
By
JOSEPH MOXON, Fellow of the Royal Society, and Hydrographer to the late King
Charles.
LONDON: Printed for
Tho. Leigh and
Dan. Midwinter, at the
Rose and Crown in St.
Paul's-
Church-Yard. 1703.
DYalling originally is a
Mathematical Science, attained by the Philosophical contemplation of the Motion of the Sun, the Motion of the Shadow, the Constitution of the Sphere, the Scituation of Planes, and the Consideration of Lines.
Explanation.
THE Motion of the Sun is reguler, it moving in equal Space in equal Time; But the Moon of the Shadow irregular, in all parts of the Earth, unless under the two Poles, and that more or less according to the Constitution of the
Sphere and Scituation of the
Plane. And therefore Scientifick Dyalists by the Geometrick Considerations of Lines, have found out Rules, to mark out the irregular Motion of the
Shadow in all
Latitudes, and on all
Planes, to Comply with the regular Motion of the Sun. And these Rules of adjusting the Motion of the Shadow to the Motion of the Sun, may be called
Scientifick Dyalling.
But though we may justly account
Dyalling originally a
Science, yet such have been the G
[...]iolity of many of its studious Contemplations, that they have communicated their acquired
[...]; whereby it is now become to many of the
[...] no more difficult than an
A
[...]t, [...] Authors
[Page 308] so Intituled: Nay more, by this small Treatise it will scarce be accounted more than a
Manual Operation; for, though (hitherto) all the Authors I have met with seem to pre-suppose their Reader to understand
Geome
[...]ry, and the
Projecting of the Sphere already, or else endeavour in their Works to make him understand them, as if they were absolutely necessary to be known by every one that would make a Dyal, when as in truth, (the Contemplative pains of others aforesaid of considered) they are not; but indeed are only useful to those that would know the reason of
Dyalling. Thus they do not only discourage young beginners, but also disappoint many Gentlemen and others, that would willingly either make them themselves, or set their Workmen about them, it they knew how to make them.
This little Piece I have therefore composed for the help of those who understand neither the
Projection of the Sphere, or
Geometrical Operations: Only, if they know how to draw a straight Line between two points by the side of a Ruler, describe a Circle with a pair of Compasses, erect a Perpendicular and draw one Line parallel to another, they may know how to draw a
Dyal for any given
Plane, however scituated in any Latitude.
But perhaps these two last little Tricks are not known to all new beginners, therefore I shall shew them. First,
How to erect a Perpendicular. For Example, in
Fig. 1.
Upon the Line AB, you would erect a Perpendicular to the Point C: Place one Foot of your Compasses upon the point C, and open the other to what distance you please: For
Example, to the point A, make there a mark; then keeping the first Foot still in C, turn the other Foot towards B, and make there another mark; then open your
[Page 309] Compasses wider, suppose to the length AB, and placing one Foot in the point
[figure]
A, with the other Foot describe a small Arch over the point C, and removing the Foot of your Compasses to the point B, with the other Foot describe another small Arch, to cut the first Arch, as at D. Then lay your straight Ruler to the point where the two small Arches cut each other, and upon the point C, and by the side of the Ruler draw the Line CD, which shall be a Perpendicular to the Line AB.
Another way with once opening the Compasses, as by
Fig. 2.
Draw the Line AB, and place one Foot of your Compasses upon the point you would have the Perpendicular erected, as at the Point C, and with the other Foot describe the Semi-circle A
abB, then placing one foot in B, extend the other foot to
b, in the Semi-circle; and keeping that Foot in
b, extend the other Foot to D, and make there a small Arch: Then remove one Foot of your Compasses to A, and extend the other Foot to
a in the Semi-circle, and keeping that Foot in
a, extend the other to D, and make there another small Arch, to cut the first small Arch; and laying a straight Ruler to the point where these two small Arches cut each other, and upon the point C, draw
[Page 310] by the side of the Ruler the Line CD, which shall be perpendicular to the Line AB.
To erect a Perpendicular upon the end of a Line, as by
Fig. 3.
On the point B, at one end of the Line AB, place one Foot of your Compasses in the point B, and extend the other on the Line towards A, as to
b, and with it describe the Arch
baC; then placing one Foot in
b, extend the other to
a in the Arch, and make there a mark; Divide with your Compasses the Arch
ba into two equal parts, and keeping the Feet of your Compasses at that distance, measure in the Arch from
a to C, then draw a straight Line from the point C to the end of the Line B, and that straight Line shall be Perpendicular to the end of the Line AB.
To draw a Line Parallel to another Line, as by
Fig. 4.
Example. If you would draw a Line parallel to the Line AB, open your Compasses to the distance you intend the Lines shall stand off each other, and placing one Foot successively near each end, describe with other Foot the small Arches CD; lay a straight Ruler to the top of these Arches▪ and draw a Line by the side of it, and that Line shall be parallel to the Line AB.
Definitions.
A
Dyal Plane is that Flat whereon a
Dyal is intended to be projected.
Of
Dyal Planes some be
Direct, others
Decliners, others
Oblique.
Of
Direct Planes there are five sorts.
1. The
Horizontal whose Plane lies flat, and is parallel to the
Horizon, beholding the
Zenith.
2. The
South Erect, whose Plane stands upright, and directly beholds the
South.
[Page 311]3. The
North Erect, whose Plane stands upright, and directly beholds the
North.
4. The
East Erest, whose Plane stands upright, and directly beholds the
East.
5. The
West Erect, whose Plane stands upright and directly beholds the
West.
Of
Decliners there are infinite; and yet may be reduced into these two
Kinds.
1. The
South Erect Plane, declining more or less towards the
East or
West.
2. The
North Erect Plane, declining more or less towards the
East or
West.
Of
Obliq
[...]e Planes some are
Direct other
Declining; and are of four sorts.
1.
Direct Inclining Planes, which lean towards you, and lie directly in the
East, West, North, or
South quarters of Heaven.
2.
Direct Reclinig Planes, which lean from you, and lie directly in the
East, West, North or
South quarters of Heaven.
3.
Inclining Declining Planes, which lean towards you, but lie not directly in the
East, West, North, or
South quarters of Heaven; But decline more or less from the
North or
South, towards the
East or
West.
4.
Reclining Declining Planes, which lean from you, but lie not directly in the
East, West, North or
South quarters of Heaven; But Decline more or less from the
North or
South, towards the
East or
West.
If the Scituation of the
Plane be not given, you must seek it: For, there are several ways how to know these several kinds of
Planes used among Artists; But the readiest and easiest is by an Instument called a
Declinatory, fitted to the variation of your Place: And if it be truly made, you may as safely rely upon it as any other.
THE Clinatory is made of a square Board, ABCD, of a good thickness, and the larger the better; between two of the sides is described on the Center A, a
Quadrant as EF divided into 90 equal parts or degrees, which are figured with 10, 20, 30 to 90; and then back again with the Complements of the same Numbers to 90: Between the Limb and the two Semi-diameters is made a round Box, into which a Magnetical Needle is fitted; and a Card of the Nautical Compass, divided into four nineties, beginning their Numbers at the
East West North and
South points of the Compass, from which points the opposite sides of the Clinatory receives their Names of
East, West, North and
South.
But
Note, That the North point of the Card must be placed so many degrees towards the
East or
West sides of the Clinatory, as the Needle varies from the true
North point of the World, in the place where you make your Dyal; which your Workman that makes your Clinatory will know how to sit.
Upon the Center A, whereon the Quadrant was described, is fastned a Plumb-line, having a Plummet of Lead or Brass fastned to the end of it, which Plumb-line is of such length that the Plummet may fall just into the Groove GH, below the Quadrant, which is for that purpose made of such a depth, that the Plummet may ride freely within it, without stopping at the sides of it,
See the Figure annexed.
With this Clinatory you may examine the scituation of Planes. As if your Plane be Horizontal, it is direct: and then for the true scituating your Dyal, you have only the true North and South Line to find: which is done only by setting the Clinatory flat down upon the Plane, and turning it towards the right or left hand, till you can bring the North point of the Needle to hang just over the Flower-de-luce; for then if you draw a Line by either of the sides parallel to the Needle, that Line shall be a North and South Line.
If your Plane either Recline or Incline, apply one of the sides of your Clinatory parallel to one
[Page 314] of the Semi-diameters of the Quadrant to the Plane, in such sort that the Plumb-line hanging at liberty, may fall upon the Circumference of the Quadrant, for then the number of degrees of the Quadrant comprehended between the side of the Quadrant parallel to the Plane, and the Plumb-line shall be the number of degrees for Reclination, if the Center of the Quadrant points upwards; or Inclination, if the Center points downwards.
If your Reclining or Inclining Plane decline, draw upon it a Line parallel to the Horizon, which you may do by applying the Back-side of the Clinatory, and raising or depressing the Center of the Quadrant, till the Plumb-line hang just upon one of the Semi-diameters, for then you may by the upper-side of the Clinatory draw an Horizontal Line if the Plane Incline, or by the under-side, if it Recline. If it neither Incline or Recline, you may draw a Horizontal Line both by the upper and under sides of the Clinatory. Having drawn the Horizontal Line, apply the North side of the Clinatory to it, and if the North end of the Needle points directly towards the Plane, it is then a South Plane. If the North point of the Needle points directly from the Plane, it is a
North Plane: But if it points towards the
East, it is an
East Plane: If towards the
West, a
West Plane. If it do not point directly either East, West, North, or South, then so many degrees as the Needle declines from any of these four points to any of the other of these four points, so many degrees is the Declination of the Plane.
You may find a Meridian Line another way; thus, If the Sun shine just at Noon, hold up a Plumb-line so as the shadow of it may fall upon your Plane, and that shadow shall be a
Meridian Line.
OPERAT. II. To describe a Dyal upon a
Horizontal Plane.
FIrst draw a North and South Line (which is called a
Meridian Line) through the middle of the Plane; Thus Set your
Declinatory flat upon the Plane, and turn it too and fro till the Needle hang precisely over the
Meridian Line of the
Declinatory; then by the side of the
Declinatory parallel to its
Meridian Line, draw a straight Line on the Plane, and if that straight Line be in the middle of the Plane, it shall be the
Meridian Line, whithout more ado: But if it be not in the middle of the Plane, you must draw a Line parallel to it, through the middle of the Plane for the
Meridian Lane, or twelve a Clock Line: And it shall be the
M
[...]ridian Line, and also be the
Substilar Line; then draw another straight Line through the middle of this Line, to cut it at right Angles for the VI a Clock Lines; and where these two Lines cut one another make your Center, whereon you describe a Circle on your
Plane as large as you can, which by the
Meridian Line, and the Line drawn at right Angles with it will be divided into four
Quadrants; one of the
Quadrants divide into 90 degrees thus, keeping your Compasses at the same width they were at when you described the
Quadrant, place one Foot in the twelve a Clock Line, and extend the other in the
Quadrant, and make in the
Quadrant a mark with it, so shall you have the sixtieth degree marked out: Then place one Foot of your Compasses in the six a Clock Line, and extend the other in the
Quadrant, and make in the
Quadrant another mark with it; so shall that
Quadrant be divided into three equal parts, each of
[...]h
[...]se three equal parts contains 30 Degrees: Then with your Compasses divide one of th
[...]se three
[Page 316] equal parts into three parts▪ and transfer that distance to the other two third parts of the
Quadrant, so shall the whole
Quadrant be divided into nine equal parts. Then divide one of these nine equal parts into two equal parts, and transfer that distance to the other eight equal parts, so shall the
Quadrant be divided into Eighteen equal parts. Then divide one of these Eighteen equal parts into five equal parts, and transfer that distance to the other Seventeen equal parts, so shall the whole
Quadrant be divided into 90 equal parts, Each of these 90 equal parts are called Degrees.
Note, That you may in small
Quadrants divide truer and with less trouble with Steel Dividers, (which open or close with a Screw for that purpose,) then you can with Compasses.
In this
Quadrant (thus divided) count from the
Substilar or
Meridian Line the Elevation of the
Pole, that is, the number of Degrees that the
Pole of the World is elevated above the
Horizon of your Place, and draw a Line from the Center through that number of Degrees for the
Stilar Line. Then on the
Substilar Line chose a point (where you please) and through that point draw a Line at right Angles to the
Substilar Line as long as you can, for the Line of
Contingence, and from that point in the
Substilar Line measure the nearest distance any part of the
Stilar Line hath to that point; and keeping one Foot of your Compasses still in that point, set of that distance in the
Substilar Line, and at that distance describe against the
Line of
Contingence a Semi-circle, which divide from either side the
Meridian or
Substilar Line into six equal parts thus; Draw a line through the Center of this Semi-circle parallel to the
Line of
Contingence, which shall be the
Diametral Line, and shall devide this Semi-circle into two
Quadrants; one on one side the
Substiler Line, and the
[Page 317]Quadrant on the other side the
Substiler Line: then keeping your Compasses at the same distance they were at when you described the Semi-circle, place one Foot first on one side the
Diametral Line at the Intersection of it and the Semi-circle, and then on the other side, at the Intersection of it and the Semi-circle, and extend the other in the Semi-circle, and make marks in the Semi-circle on either side the
Substilar Line; then place one Foot of your Compasses at the Intersection of the Semi-circle and the
Substilar Line, and turn the other Foot about on either side the Semi-circle and make marks in the Semi-circle, so shall the Semi-circle be divided into six equal parts; Divide one of these equal parts into two equal parts, and transfer that distance to the other five equal parts, so shall the whole Semi-circle be divided into twelve equal parts. These twelve Divisions are to describe the twelve Hours of the Day, between six a Clock in the Morning, and six a Clock at Night.
If you will have half Hours, you may divide each of these twelve into two equal parts, as before: If you will have Quarters you may divide each of these twenty four into two equal parts more, as before.
For thus proportioning the Divisions in the Semi-circle, you may proportion the Divisions and Sub-divi-sions of Hours upon the
Dyal Plane; for a straight Ruler laid upon each of these Divisions, and on the Center of this Semi-circle, shall shew on the
Line of Contingence the several Distances of all the Hours and parts of Hours on the
Dyal Plane. And straight Lines drawn from the Center of the
Dyal Plane, through the several Divisions on the
Line of Contingence shall be the several Hour Lines and parts on the
Dyal Plane.
[Page 318]But an
Horizontal Dyal in our Latitude will adadmit of four Hours more,
viz. V, IV, in the Morning, and VII, VIII, in the Evening. Therefore in the Circle described on the Center of the
Dyal Plane transfer the distance between VI and V, and VI and IV, on the other side the six a Clock Line; and transfer the Distances between VI and VII, and VI and VIII on the other side the opposite six a Clock Hour Line, and from the Center of the
Dyal Plane draw Lines through those transferred Distances for the Hour Lines before and after VI.
Then mark your Hour Lines with their respective numbers. The
Substilar Line in this Dyal (as aforesaid) is XII, from thence towards the right hand mark every successive Hour Line with I, II, III,
&c. and from XII towards the left hand with XI, X, IX,
&c.
The
Stile must be erected perpendicularly over the
Substilar Line, so as to make an Angle with the
Dyal Plane equal to the
Elevation of the
Pole of your Place.
Example.
You would draw a Dyal upon a
Horizontal Plane here at
London; First draw the
Meridian (or North and South Line) as XII B, and cross it in the middle with another Line at right Angles, as VI, VI, which is an East and West Line; where these two Lines cut each other as at A, make the Center, whereon describe the Semi-circle B, VI, VI; but one of the
Quadrants, viz. the
Quadrant from XII to VI, towards the right hand you must divide into 90 equal parts (as you were taught in
Fol 12.) and at 51 ½ degrees (which is
Londons Latitude) make a mark, and laying a straight Ruler to the Center of the
Plane, and to this mark draw a Line by the side of it for the Stilar Line. Then on the
[Page 319] Substilar Line chuse a point as at C, and thro' that point draw a Line as long as you can perpendicular to the East and West Line VI, VI, as EF, (which is called the
Contingent Line) where this
Contingent Line cuts the
Substilar Line place one Foot of your Compasses, and from thence measure the shortest Distance between the point C and the
Stilar Line, And keeping one Foot of your Compasses still in the point C, set off the shortest distance between the point C, and the
Stilar Line on the
Substilar Line, as at D; which point D shall be a Center, whereon▪ with your Compasses at the same width you must describe a Semi-circle to represent a Semi-circle of the
Equinoctial. This Semi-circle divide into six equal parts (as you were taught
Fol. 13.) to each of which equal parts, and to the Center the
Equinoctial Semi-circle lay a straight Ruler, and where the straight Ruler cuts the
Line of Contingence make marks in the
Line of Contingence. Then lay the straight Ruler to the Semi-circle of the
Dyal Plane, and to each of the marks in the
Line of Contingence, and by the side of it draw twelve straight Line
[...] for the twelve For
[...] and Afternoon Hour Lines,
viz. from VI in the Morning to VI in the Evening. Then in the
Quadrant VI B, measure the distance between the VI
[...] Clock Hour Line, and the V a Clock Hour Line, and transfer the same distances from the VI a Clock Line to VII, and V
[...] both sides the VI a Clock Hour Lines, and through those distances draw from the Center of the Plane the VII and V a Clock Hour Lines, and measure the distance between the VI a Clock Hour Line and the IV a Clock Hour Line, and transfer the same distance from the VI a Clock Line to VIII and IV, and through those diststances draw from the Center of the Plane the VIII a Clock and IV a Clock Hour Lines.
If you will have the half Hours and quarter Hours, or any other division of Hours, you must divide each six Divisions of the
Equinoctial into so many parts as you intend, and by a straight Ruler laid to the Center of the
Equinoctial, and those divisions in the
Equinoctial Circle make marks in the
Line of Contingence, as you did before for the whole Hour Lines: and Lines drawn from the Center of the Plane through those marks shall be the Sub-divisions or the Hours: But you must remember to make all Sub-divisions short Lines, and near the verge of the
Dyal Plane, that you may the easier distinguish between the whole Hours and the parts of Hours; as you may see in the Figure.
Having drawn the Hour-Lines, set the Number of each Hour-Line under it, as you see in the Figure. Last of all fit a Triangular Iron, whose angular Point being laid to the Centre of the
Dyal
[Page 322] Plane, one side must agree with the
Substilar Line, and its other side with the
Stilar Line; so is the
Stile made And this
Stile you must erect Perpendiculary over the
Substilar Line on the
Dyal Plane, and there fix it. Then is your
Dyal finished.
OPERAT. III. To describe an
Erect Direct South-Dyal.
YOU may know an
Erect Direct South Plane, by applying the North-side of the
Declinatory to it; For then, if the North-end of the Needle hang directly over the North-point of the Card in the bottom of the Box, it is a
South-Plane; but if it hang not directly over the North-point of the Card it is not a
Direct South-Plane, but
Declines either East or West and that contrary to the Pointing of the Needle Easterly or Westerly, from the North-point of the Card: For, if the North-point of the Needle points Easterly, the
Plane Declines from the South towards the West: if it point Westerly the
Plane Declines from the South towards the East.
You may know, if the
Plane be truly
Erect or upright, by applying one of the sides AD or AB to it; for then by holding the Center A upwards, so as the Plumb-line play free in the Groove, if the Line falls upon 0, or 90, the Plane is upright; but, if it hang upon any of the intermediate Degrees, it is not upright, but
Inclines or
Reclines.
If you find it incline, apply the side AB to it; and see what number of Degrees the Plumb-line falls on, for that number of Degrees, counted from the said AB, is the number of Degrees of
Inclination.
If you find the
Plane Reclines, apply the side AD to it, and see what number of Degrees the Plumb-line falls on, for that number of Degrees counted from the side AD, is the number of Degrees of
Reclination.
[Page 289]These Rules being well understood, may serve you to find the scituation of all other sort of
Planes.
But for the making a
Dyal on this
Plane, you must first draw a
Meridian Line through the middle of the
Plane, by applying a Plumb-line to the middle of it, till the Plumbet hang quietly before it: for then, if the Plumb-line be blacked (for a white Ground, or chalked for a dark Ground) and strained as Carpenters do their Lines▪ you may with one stroke of the string on the
Plane, describe the
Meridian Line, as A XII. This
Meridian is also the
Substilar line.
[figure]
Then on the top of this
Meridian Line, as at A draw another Line athwart it, to cut it at right Angles, as VI, VI. for an East and West Line. At the meeting of these two Lines at the top, make your Center, whereon describe a Semi-Circle on your
Plane, as large as you can, which by the
Meridian Line and the East and West Line, will be divided into two
Quadrants. One of these
Quadrants divide into 90 Degrees (as you were taught
Fol. 12.) and from the
Substilar Line count the Complement of the
Poles Elevation, which (here at
London where the
Pole is elevated 51 ½ Degrees, its Complement to 90) is 38 ½ Degrees, and make
[Page 290] there a mark, as at E. Then on the
Substilar line chuse a point (where you please) as at F, for the
line of Contingence to pass through; which
Line of Contingence draw as long as you can, so as it may cut the
Substilar Line at right Angles, and from the point F in the
Substilar line, measure the shortest distance between it and the
Stilar
[...]ne, and keeping one Foot of your Compasses still in the point F, transfer that distance into the
Substilar Line as at G; then on the point G describe a Semi-Circle of the
Equinoctial against the
[...]ire of Contingence, which Semi-Circle divide into twelve equal parts, (as you were taught by the
Example in the
Horizontal Dyal, Fol. 13.) and by a straight Ruler laid to each of these Divisions▪ and to the Center of the Semi-Circle make marks in the
Line of Contingence by the side of the Ruler; For straight Lines drawn from the Center of the
Dyal plane through these marks in the
Contingent line shall be the 12 Hour Lines before and after Noon.
Then mark your Hour Lines with their respective Numbers; the
Substilar or
Meridian Line is XII, from thence towards the right hand with I, II, III,
&c. and from thence towards the left hand with a XI, X, IX
&c.
The
Stile must be erected perpendicular over the
Substilar Line, so as to make an Angle with the
Dyal Plane equal to the Complement of the
Poles Elevation, viz. 38 ½ Degrees.
OPERAT. IV. To make an Erect Direct
North Dyal.
THE
Erect Direct North Dyal Stile and all, is made by the same Rules, changing upwards for downwards, and the left side for the right, the
Erect Direct South Dyal is made; for if the
Erect Direct South Dyal be drawn on any transparent
[Page 324] Plane, as on Glass, Horn, or an oyled Paper, and the
Horizontal Line VI, VI, turned downwards, and the Line VII mark't with V, the Line VIII with IIII▪ the Line V with VII, and the Line IIII with VIII, then have you of it a
North Erect Direct Dyal.
All the other Hour Lines in this Dyal are useless, because the Sun in our Latitude shines on a North Face the longest Day only before VI in the Morning, and after VI at Night.
OPERAT. V. To describe an Erect Direct
East Dyal.
HAving a Plumb-line a little above the Place on the Wall where you intend to make your
[...], and wait till it hang quietly before the wall: Then if the Line be rubbed with Chalk (like a Carpenters Line) you may by holding the Plumbet end close to the wall, and straining it pretty stiff, strike with it a straight Line, as Carpenters do: This Line shall be a perpendicular, as AB. Then chuse a convenient point in this Perpendicular, as at C, for a Center, whereon describe an occult Arch, as DE; This Arch must contain the number of Degrees of the
Elevation of the
Equinoctial, counted between D and E, which in our
Latitude is 38 ½, or (which is all one) the Complement of the
Poles Elevation. Therefore in a
Quadrant of the same
Radius, with the occult Arch measure 38 ½ Degrees, and set them off in the Plane from E to D: Then from D to the Center C in the Perpendicular, draw the prick't Line DC; this prick't Line shall represent the
Axis of the World. Then cross this Line at right Angles with the Line CF, and draw it from C to F, so long as possibly you can: This Line shall be the
Contingent Line. Then chuse a point in this
Contingent Line, as at VI▪ draw a Line through that point at right Angles for the
Subst
[...] lar
[Page 325] Line, as GVIH for the
Substilar Line; then open your Compasses to a convenient width, (as to VIG) and pitching one foot in the point G, with the other Foot describe a Semi-Circle of the
Equinoctial against the
Line of Contingence, which Semi-Circle divide from VI both ways into six equal parts, as you were taught by the
Example in the
Horizontal Dyal; and laying a straight Ruler on the Center of this Semi-Circle of the
Equinoctial, and to each of those equal parts mark on the
Contingent Line where the Ruler cuts it, for those marks shall be the several points from whence Lines drawn parallel to the Line CD shall be the respective Hour Lines.
[figure]
[Page 293]The reason why the
Contingent Line is drawn from VI to F, so much longer than from VI to C is; because the Hour Lines from VI towards XII are more in Number towards Noon▪ than they are from VI backwrd towards IIII, for this Dyal will only shew the Hours from a little before IV in the Morning to almost Noon. For just at Noon the Shadow goes off the Plane; as you may see, if you apply a straight Ruler to the Center of the equinoctial Semi-Circle G, and lay it to the point 12 in the Semi-Circle; for the straight Ruler will then never cut the
Line of Contingence, because the
Line of Contingence is parallel to the line G XII on the Equinoctial Circle, and Lines parallel, though continued to never so great a length, never meet.
To these
Hour Lines, set Figures as may be seen in the Scheme
The
Stile IK of this Dyal, as well as of all others, must stand parallel to the
Axis of the World; and also parallel to the Face of the
Plane, and parallel to all the
Hour lines, and stand directly over the
Substilar or VI a Clock
Hour line, and that so high as is the distance of the Center of the Equinoctial Semi-Circle from the
Contingent Line.
OPERAT. VI. To describe a
Dyal on an
Erect Direct West Plane.
AN Erect Direct
West-Dyal, is the same in all respects with an Erect Direct East-Dyal; only as the East-Dyal sh
[...]ws the Forenoon Hours, so the West shews the Afternoon Hours.
Thus, if you should draw the
East-Dyal on any transparent
Plane, as on Glass, Horn, or oyl
[...] Paper, on the one side will appear an
East Dyal, on the other side a
West; only the numbers to the
Hour Lines (as was said before in the
North-Dyal,) must
[Page 294] be changed; for that which in the
East-Dyal is XI, in the
West must be I; that which in the
East-Dyal is X, in the
West must be II; that which in the
East Dyal is IX, in the
West must be III,
&c. The Stile is the same.
OPERAT. VII. To Describe a Dyal on an
Erect North, or
Erect South Plane Declining Eastwards or Westwards.
THese four Dyals, viz. the
Erect North Declining Eastwards, the
Erect North Declining Westwards, the
Erect South Declining Eastwards, and the
Erect South Declining Westward
[...], are all projected by the same Rules; and therefore are in effect but one Dyal differently placed, as you shall see hereafter.
First draw on your
Plane a straight Line to represent the
Horizon of your place, and mark one end of it W for
West, and the other end E for
East. Chuse a point in this
Horizontal Line for a Center, as at A, whereon you may describe a Circle to comprehend all these four
Dyals: Draw Line as MAM perpendicular to the
Horizontal Line WE, through the Center A for a
Meridian Line and on that Center describe a Circle, which by the two Lines WAE, and MAM will be divided into four
Quadrants, which will comprehend the four
Dyals aforesaid; for if it be a
North Declining West you are to draw, the upper
Quadrant to the left hand serves your purpose; If a
South declining West, the same Lines continued through the Center A into the lower
Quadrant to the right Hand serves your turn; if a
North Declining East, the upper
Quadrant to the right hand serves your turn; or if a
South declining East, the same Lines continued through the Center A into the lower
Quadrant to the left hand serves your turn; and you must draw the
Declination, Complement
[Page 328] of the Poles Altitude; Substile Stile and
Hour Lines in it; but the
Hour Lines must be differently marked as you shall see hereafter. I shall only give you an Example of one of these Dyals,
viz. A
South Declining East.
[figure]
We will suppose you are to draw a Dyal that
declines from the
South 50 Degrees towards the
East; here being but one
Dyal, you need describe but one
Quadrant of a Circle. Set off in the lower
Quadrant WAM 50 degrees from the
Meridian Line M towards W, and from the Center A draw a straight Line through that mark in the
Quadrant as DA, which may be called the
Line of Declination; then set off from the
Meridian Line the
Complement of the
Poles Elevation, which in our Latitude is 38 ½ degrees, and there draw another Line from the Center as AP, which we will call the
Polar Line.[Page 329] Then take in the
Horizontal Line a convenient portion of the
Quadrant, as AB, and from the point B draw a Line parallel to the
Meridian Line AM, and continue that Line till it intersect the
Polar Line, as at P, from which Point P draw a Line parallel to WA, as PC: Then measure the distance of AB in the
H
[...]rizontal Line, and set off that distance in the Line of
Declination, as from A to D, and from that point of distance draw a Line parallel to the
Meridian AM through the
Horizontal Line at R, and through the Point D, and continue it through the Line PC, as at S; then laying a straight Ruler to the Center A and the Intersection of the line PC, at S draw the Line AS for the
Substile: Then upon the point S erect a Line perpendicularly as ST; Then measure the distance between R and D, and set that distance off from S to T, and from the Center to the point T draw the Line AT for the
Stile or
Gnomon; and the
Triangle SAT made of Iron or Brass, and erected perpendicularly over the
Substile SA, shall by its upper side TA, cast a shadow upon the Hour of the day. But you will say, the Hour Lines must be drawn first: It is true; Therefore to draw them you must chuse a point in the
Substile Line where you think good, and through it draw the Line FF as long as you can for the
Line of Contingence; then with your Compasses take the distance between this point and the
Stile, and transfer that distance below the
Line of Contingence on the
Substile as at AE, and with your Compasses at that distance describe on the Center AE a Circle to represent the
Equinoctial; then (as you were taught in the Example of the
Horizontal Dyal) divide the Semi-Circle of the
Equinoctial into twelve equal parts, beginning at the point in the
Equinoctial Circle, where a straight Line drawn from the Center of it to the Intersection of the Line of
Contingence with the Meridian Line cuts the
Equinoctial[Page 297] Line, as here at the Point G; then lay a straight Ruler to the Center of the
Equinoctial Circle and to every one of the Divisions in the Semicle, and mark where the straight Ruler cuts the
Contingent Line; for straight Lines drawn from the Center A of the Dyal to those several marks on the
Contingent Line, shall be the
Hour Lines; and must be numbred from the Noon Line or
Meridian AM backwards, as XII, XI, X, IX,
&c. towards the left hand. So is your Dyal finished.
This Dyal drawn on any transparent matter, as Horn, Glass, or an oyled Paper, shall on the other side the transparent matter become a
South Declining West (Stile and all) but then the I a Clock Hour Line must be marked II. the XII, XII, the XI a Clock Hour Line, I, X, II, IX, III,
&c.
If you project it a new, you must describe the
Quadrant MW on the other side the
Meridian Line, on the Center A from M to E, and then count, (as before) the
Declination, Altitude of the
Pole, Substile, and
Sti
[...]e in the
Quadrant, beginning at M towards E, and work in all respects as with the
South Declining East; only number this
South Declining West as in the foregoing Paragraph.
If you project a
North Declining East, you must describe the
Quadrant above the
Horizontal Line from M upwards, towards E on your right hand and count (as before) the
Declination, Altitude, Complement of the
Pole, Substile and
Stile from the
meridian Line, and work as with the
South Declining East: It must be numbred from the
Meridian Line M towards the right hand with XI, X, IX, VIII,
&c.
If this Dyal were drawn on transparent matter, the other side would shew a
North Declining West: But if you will project it anew, you must describe the
Quadrant above the
Horizontal Line, from M upwards towards W, and count from the
Meridian Line AM the
Declination, Complement, Altitude of
[Page 298]the Pole, Substile and Stile and work with them (in all respects) as with the
S
[...]uth Dec
[...]ining East; but then the XI a Clock Hour Line must be marked I, the X, II; the IX▪ III,
&c.
OPERAT. VIII. To draw a Dyal on an
East or
West Plane Reclining or
Inclining.
DRaw a straight Line parallel to the
Horizon, to represent the
Meridian, or XII a Clock Line and mark one end N, the other S; chuse a point in this Line, as at A for a Center: Then if Your Plane be an
East, or a
West Incliner, let fall a Perpendicular upon this Center▪ (that is, the Perpendicular must stand above the Meridian Line NS) as AE, and upon the Center A describe a Semi-Circle above the Meridian Line NS; But if your Plane be an East Incliner, or a West Recliner, let fall a Perpendicular from the Center A under the Meridian Line, and upon the Center A describe a Semi-Circle under the
Meridian Line. If your Plane be a
West Incliner; work (as shall be taught) in the
Quadrant on the left hand above the
Meridian Line. If an East Recliner, in the
Quadrant on the right hand above the Meridian Line. If it be a West Recliner, work in the
Quadrant on the left hand under the
Meridian. If an East Incliner, in the Quadrant under the Meridian Line the right hand.
For
Example, An East Dyal Reclining
45 Degrees.
You would draw a
Dyal on an
East Plane Reclinining 45 Degrees: Therefore in the
Quadrant on the right hand above the
Meridian Line, set off from the Perpendicular AE 45 Degrees on the
Quadrant for the Reclination of the
Plane; and set
[Page 332] off also in the
Quadrant 38 ½ Degrees from the Perpendicular for the
Complement of the Poles Elevation, and at these settings off make marks in the
Quadrant; Then lay a straight Ruler to the Center A, and to the marks in the
Quadrant, and draw straight Lines through them from the Center. Then chuse in the
Meridian Line NS a convenient point as at B, and through that point draw a Line parallel to the perpendicular AE, which will Intersect the Line drawn for the Complement of the
Poles Elevation AP in P; from which point P, draw a Line parallel to the
Meridian Line NS, to cut the Perpendicular AE in C. and also the Line of Obliquity AO in O. Then measure the length AO, and set off that length in the Perpendicular ACE from A to E, and draw the Line EG parallel to the
Meridian Line NS which will cut the Line BP prolonged in G. Measure also the length of CO. and set that length off from A to Q on the Line of Obliquity AO, and draw the Line QR parallel to the Perpendicular ACE. Then measure the distance of AR, and upon the Line GPB, set it off from G to S; and laying a straight Ruler to the point S and the Center A, draw by the side of it the Line AS, for the
Substile Line. Then measure the length of QR, and from S raise a Perpendicular, and in that Perpendicular, set that length off from S to T; and laying a straight Ruler to the Center A and the point T, draw the Line AT for the
Stilar Line, which
Stilar Line being Perpendicular erected over the
Substilar Line AS, will stand parallel to the
Axis of the World, and cast its shadow on the Hour of the Day.
To draw the Hour Lines on this Plane, you must (as you have several times before been directed) chuse a point in the
Substilar Line and through that point draw at right Angles with the
Substilar Line, the Line of
Contingence so long as you can: Then measure the shortest distance between that Point and the
Stilar Line, and transfer that distance below the Line of
Contingence in the
Substilar Line, as at AE, and with your Compasses at that distance, describe against the Line of Contingence the Equinoctial Circle; then divide the Semi-circle of the
Equinoctial next the Line of
Contingence into twelve equal parts, as you have formerly been taught, beginning at the Point in the
Equinoctial Circle, where a straight Line drawn from the Center of it to the Intersection of the Line of
Contingence[Page 301] with the
Meridian Line NS cuts the
Equinoctial Circle as here at the point D; Then lay a straight Ruler to the Center of the
Equinoctial Circle, and to every one of the Divisions in the
Equinoct
[...] Semi-Circle, and mark where the straight Ruler cuts the
Contingent Line; for straight Lines drawn from the Center A of the Dyal through these several marks in the
Contingent Line shall be the Hour Lines and must be numbred from the
Meridian or Noon-Line NS, which is the XII a Clock Line upwards, with XI, X, IX, VIII,
&c. The Center of this Dyal must stand downward.
If this Dyal were turned with its Center upwards, it would shew a
West Inclining 45 degrees, only the numbers to the Hour Lines must be changed; for to XI you must set I, to X, II, to IX, III,
&c. and the
Substile over which the Stile must stand, must be placed in the Semi-circle (at first described) as much to the right hand the perpendicular AE, as it doth on the left hand.
If this Dyal were drawn on Glass, or Horn, or an oyled Paper, and you turn the
Meridian Line NS upwards the back side shall be an
East Inclining 45 degrees, and the Hour Lines must be numbred as they are on the
East Reclining; But the Substile over which the Stile must stand must be placed in the Semi-circle (at first described) as much to the left hand the perpendiculer AE, as it is on the oyled Paper to the right hand.
If you turn the
Meridian Line NS downwards, the backside shall be a
West Recliner 45 Degrees, and the Hour Lines must be numbred from the XII a Clock line upwads, with I, II, III,
&c.
You must Note that all the Hour-Lines of the Day will nor be described in this single
Quadrant, nor does the
Quadrant at all relate to the Hour Lines; but is described only for setting off the
Complement of the
Poles Elevation and
Reclination of the
Plane,[Page 302] that by working (as hath been shewn) you may find the place of the Substilar Line, and the Angle the Stile makes with it; for having the Substilar Line, you know how to draw the Line of
Contingence, and to describe the
Equinoctial Circle, by which all the Hours are described on the
Plane.
To draw a
Dyal on a
Direct South or
North Plane Inclining or
Reclining.
Direct Reclining or
Inclining Dyals are the same with Erect Direct Dyals that are made for the Latitude or some other Places; the Latitude of whi
[...]h Places are either more then the Latitude of your place, if the Plane
Recline, or less, if it
Incline; and that in such a proportion as the Arch of
Reclination or
Inclination is.
Thus a Direct South Dyal
Reclining 10 degrees in
London's Latitude, (
viz. 51 ½ degrees) is an Erect Direct South Dyal made for the Latitude of 61 ½ degrees. And a Direct South Dyal
Inclining 10 in the Latitude of 51 ½ is an
Erect Direct South Dyal in the Latitude of 41 ½ degrees, and is to be made according to the Direction given in
Operat. III.
OPERAT. IX. To draw a
Dyal on a
South or
North Inclining Declining, or
Reclining Declining Plane.
THese four sorts of Dyals,
viz. the South Inclining Declining, and South Reclining Declining, and North Inclining Declining, and South Reclining Declining are all projected by the same Rules; and therefore are in effect but one Dyal differently placed, as you shall see hereafter.
[Page 336]First, draw on your Plane a straight Line parallel to the
Horizon, and mark one end W for
West, and the other E for
East. On South Incliners and Recliners, E on the right hand, and W on the left; on North Incliners and Recliners E on the left and W on the right. Chuse a point in this
Horizontal Line for a Center, as at A; through this point A draw a Line perpendicular to the
Horizon, and on this point (as on a Center) describe a Semi-Circle, one
Quadrant above, and another below the
Horizontal Lines, (though for this Example I describe but one.) Then if the Plane respect the South, set off in the lower
Quadrant from the perpendicular, the Declination, the Inclination, or the Reclination, and the Complement of the
Altitude of the Pole; and thro' these several settings off in the
Quadrant, draw straight Lines from the Center A, then take in the
Horizontal line towards the Semi-circle, a convenient distance from the Center A, as B, and through the point B draw a straight Line parallel to the Perpendicular, and prolong it thro' the Polar line, as BP; thro' the point P; draw a Line parallel to the
Horizontal line, as PC; this line will cut the Line of
Obliquity in the point O. then measure the distance of AO, and set off that distance on the Perpendicular from A to F, and through the point F draw a straight line parallel to the
Horizontal line, as FG, for the
Horizontal Intersection. Then measure the distance of CO, and set off that distance on the Perpendicular from A to L; from the point L draw the line LD parallel to the
Horizontal line, to cut the line of
Declination in the point D. Then measure the distance of AB, and set off that distance in the Line of Declination from A to E; and from the point E, draw a straight line parallel to the
Horizontal line WE, to cut the Perpendicular in the point K. Measure the distance of EK, and set
[Page 337] set off that distance on the other side the Perpendicular in the
Horizontal Intersection, from F to H, and from the point H draw HN parallel to the Perpendicular to cut the
Horizontal line in the point N.
[figure]
Then to find the
Meridian line,
Substile and
Stile, do thus. If your
Plane be a
Southern Incliner, or a
Norhern, Recliner, measure the distance of LD, and and set off that distance in the
Horizontal Intersection from F to M, and through the point M draw the line AM for the
Meridian line. Then add the distance of AL to AK, thus: Measure the distance of AL, and place one Foot of your Compasses in the point K in the Perpendicular line, and extend the other to X, and measuring the distance of AX, set it off in the line of
Obliquity from A to Q; and from the point Q draw the line QR parallel to the Perpendicular, and cutting the
Horizontal line in the point R. Then measure the distance of AR, and set off that distance from H
[Page 338] in the
Horizontal Intersection to S on the line HN, and to the point S draw the line AS for the
Substile. Then measure the distance of QR, and set off that distance perpendicularly from the point S to T; and lastly, from the point A draw the straight line AT for the
Stilar line, which
Stilar line being perpendicularly erected over the
Substilar line AS, will stand parallel to the
Axis of the World, and cast its shadow on the Hour of the Day.
But if the Plane be a
Southern Recliner, or
Northern Incliner, measure (as before) the distance of LD, and (as before you were directed) to set it off from F in the
Horizontal Intersection on the right hand the perpendicular line: So now, set that distance from F to
m in the Horizontal Intersection on the left hand in the Perpendicular line, and draw the line A
m for the
Meridian Line. Then as before you were directed, to add AL to AK; So now, substract the distance of AL from AK, and the remainder will be LK: Set therefore the distance of LK from A to
q in the same line of
Obliquity, and from the point
q draw the line
qr parallel to the perpendicular. Measure then the distance of A
r, and set of that distance in the line HN, from H to
s for the
Substilar line; then erect on the point
s a perpendicular, and on that Perpendicular set off from
s to
t the distance of
qr: And lastly, from A draw the Line A
t for the
Stilar Line.
If K falls upon L the
Plane is parallel to the
Axis of the World, and the Dyal drawn upon it will have no Center; But
s will fall upon H, and AH (or A
s) will be the
Substile.
I shall give you two Examples of these Rules: One of a Dyal with a Center, and the other of a Dyal without a Center. And first,
OPERAT. X. How to draw a
Dyal with a Center,
Declining 20 Degrees, and
Inclining 30 Degrees.
[figure]
HAving by the foregoing Precepts of the last
Operat. found the
Substile, Stile and
Meridian, you must (as you have often been directed) chuse a point in the
Substilar line; through which, at right Angles to the
Substilar line, draw the line of Contingence as long as you can; then measure the shortest distance between the point of Intersection and the
Stilar line, and transfer that distance on one side of the
line of
Contingence upon the
Substilar line, and so describe the
Equinoctial Semi-circle against the
line of
Contingence: Then lay a straight Ruler to the Center of the
Equinoctial Circle as at AE, and to the point where the
line of
Contingence cuts the
Meridian Line, as at Z, and mark where the straight Ruler cuts the
Equinoctial Circle,[Page 340] and from that mark begin to divide the
Semi-circle into twelve equal parts, and by a straight Ruler laid to those divisions and the Center of the
Equinoctial, make marks in the
line of
Contingence. Then shall straight
lines drawn from the Center A of the Dyal, through every one of the marks in the
Contingent line be the Hour lines of the Dyal, and must be numbred from the XII a Clock line towards the right Hand, with I, II, III, IV,
&c. And the other way with XI, X, IX,
&c.
OPERAT. XI. How to draw a
Dyal without a
Center, on a
South Plane; Declining East 30 Degrees,
Recilning 34 Degrees
32 Minutes.
HAving by the Precepts of
Operat. IX. found the
Substile, you must find the
Meridian line otherwise than you were there taught: For, having drawn the
lines of
Latitude, Declination and
Reclination, and found the
Substile, measure the distance of BP, and set it off on the
line of
Declination from A to K, and draw from the Perpendicular AF the line KQ parallel to AB: then measure the length of KQ, and set it off on the
Polar line AP, from A to V; then take the nearest distance between the point V and the
line AB, and set it off on the
line QK from Q to M; through which point M, draw a
line from the Center A; then measure with your Compasses in the Semi-circle WNE (which in this Dyal may represent the Equinoctial) the distance of the Arch N
m, and set off that distance from the Intersection of the
Substile with the Semi-circle at S to T in the Semi-circle, which point T shall be the point in the
Equinoctial that you must begin to divide the Hours at, for the finding their distances on the
line of
Contingence.
Then consider (according to the bigness of your Plane) what height your
Stile shall stand above the
Substile, and there make a mark in the
Substile; for the distance between the Center A, and that mark must be the height of the
Stile perpendicularly erected over the
Substile, as at I. Draw through this point I a
line of Contingence, as long as you can to
[...]ut the
Substile at right
Angles, and then laying a
Ruler to the Center A, and suc
[...]essively to to each Division of the
Equinoctial make m
[...]ks in the
line of Contingence, and through those marks draw straight
lines parallel to the
Substile, which shall be the
H
[...]ur lines; and must be numbred from the left hand towards the right, beginning at the XII a
Clo
[...]k line with I, II, III,
&c. and from the right hand towards the left on the XII a
Clock line with XI, X, IX,
&c.
The
Stil
[...] to this Dyal may be either a straight Pi
[...] of the length o
[...] AI, or else a square of the same height, erected Perpendicularly upon the I, in the
Sub
[...]t
[...]er-
[...]ne.
OPERAT. XII. To make a
Dyal on the
Cieling of a
Room, where the
Direct Beams of the
Sun never come.
FInd some convenient place in the Transum of a Window to place a small round piece of Looking-Glass about the bigness of a Groat or less, so as it may lie exactly Horizontal. The point in the middle of this Glass we will mark A, and for distinction-sake call it
Nodus. Through this
Nodus you must draw a
Meridian line on the Floor▪ thus: Hang a plumb-line in the window exactly over
Nodus, and the shadow that the plumb-line casts on the Floor just at Noon will be a
Meri
[...]ian line; or you may find a
Meridian line otherwise by the Clinatory. Having drawn the
Meridian line on the Cieling thus: Hold a
Plumb-line to the Cieling, over that end of the
Meridian line nex
[...] the window; if the
Plumbet hang not exactly on the
Meridian line on the Floor, remove your hand on the
Cieling one way or other, as you see cause, till it do hang quietly just over it, and at the point where the
Plumb line touches the
Cieling make a mark, as at B; that mark B shall be directly over the
Meridian line on the Floor: Then remove your
Plumb line on the
Floor, and find a point on the
Cieling directly over it, as you did the former point, as at C, and through these two points B and C on the
Cieling, strain and strike a
line blackt with
Small-coal or any other
Coluor (as Carpenters do) and that
line BC on the
Cieling shall be the
Meridan line as well as that on the Floor: Then faster a string just on the
Nodus, and remove that string, forwards or backwards, in the
Meridian line on the
Cieling, till it have the same Elevation in the
Quadrant on the
Clinatory[Page 343] above the
Horizon that the
Equinoctial hath in your Habitation and through the point where the string touches the
Meridian line in the
Cieling, shall a
line be drawn at right
Angles with the
Meridian, to represent the
Equinoctial line.
Thus in our Latitude the
Elevation of the Equator being 38 ½ degrees; I remove the string fastned to the
Nodu
[...] forwards or backwards in the
Meridian line of the
Cieling, till the
Plumb-line of the
Quadrant on the
Clinatory, when one of the sides are applied to the string, falls upon 38 ½ degrees, and then I find it touch the
Meridian line at D in the
Cieling; therefore at D I make a mark, and through this mark strike the
line DE (as before I did in the
Meridian line) to cut the
M
[...]ridian line at right Angles: This
line shall be the
Equinoctial line, and serve to denote the Hour Distances, as the
Contingent Lines does on other Dyals, as you have often seen.
Then I place the Center of the
Quadrant on the
Clinatory upon
Nodus, so as the Arch of the
Quadrant may be on the
East side the
M
[...]ridian Line, and underprop it so, that the flat side of the
Quadrant may lie parallel to the string, when it is strained between the
Nodus and the
Equinoctial, and also so as the string may lie on the Semi-diameter of the Quadrant, when it is held up to the Meridian Line on the Cieling. Then removing the string the space of
[...]5 degrees in the Quadrant, and extending it to the
Equator on the Cieling, where the string touches the
Equator, there shall be a point through which the I a Clock Hour-line shall be drawn: and removing the string yet 15 degrees futher to the Eastwards in the Semi-Circle of Position, and extending it also to the
Equator, where it touches the
[...], there sh
[...]ll be a point throu
[...]h which the II a Clock Hour-Line shall be drawn. Rem
[...]ving the string
[...] 15
[Page 344] further to the Eastwards in the Semi-circle of Po
[...]tion, and extending it also to the
Equator, where it touches the
Equator, there shall be a point, through which the II a Clock Hour-line sh
[...]ll be drawn. Removing the string yet 15 degrees further to the Eastwards in the Semi circle of Position, and extending to the
Equator; there shall be a point through which the III a Clock Hour-line shall be drawn: The like for all other Afternoon Hour-lines. So oft as the string is remov'd through 15 degrees on the Quadrant, so oft shall it point out the Afternoon distances in the Meridian line on the Cieling.
Having thus found out the points in the Equator through which the afternoon Hour-lines are to be drawn, I may find the Forenoon Hour-distances also the same way,
viz. by removing the Arch of the Quadrant to the
West-side the Meridian, as before it was placed on the
East, and bringing the string to the several 15 degrees on the
West-side the Quadrant; or else I need only measure the distances of each Hours distance found in the Equator from the Meridian line on the Cieling; for the same number of the Hours from XII, have the same distance in the Equinoctial line on the other side the Meridian, both before and after-noon: The XI a Clock Hour distance is the same from the Meridian Line, with the I a Clock distance on the other side the Meridian; the X a Clock distance, the same with the II a Clock distance; the IX with the III,
&c. And thus the distances of all the Hour lines are found out on the Equator.
Now if the Center of this Dyal lay within doors, you might draw lines from the Center through these pricks in the Equator, and those lines should be the Hour lines, as in other Dyals: But the Center of this Dyal lies without doors in the Air, and therefore not convenient for this purpose: So that for drawing the Hour lines, you must consider what Angle every Hour line in a Horizontal Dyal makes with the Meridian; that is, at what distance in Degrees and Minutes the Hour lines of an Horizontal Dyal cut the Meridian; which you may examine, as by
Operat. II. For
[Page 346] an Angle equal to the Complement of the same Angle, must each respective Hour line with the Equator on the Cieling have.
Thus upon the point markt for each Hours distance in the Equinoctial Line on the Cieling▪ I describe the Arches I, II, III, IV, as in the Figure, and finding the distance from the
Meridian of the Hour Lines of an Horizontal Dyal to be according to
Operat. II. Thus,
Te 1 a Clock Hour-Line. 11.40 whose
Complement to 90 is 78.20
Te 2 a Clock Hour-Line. 24.15 whose
Complement to 90 is 65.45
Te 3 a Clock Hour-Line. 38.14 whose
Complement to 90 is 51.56
Te 4 a Clock Hour-Line. 53 36 whose
Complement to 90 is 36.24
I measure in a Quadrant of the same Radius with those Arches already drawn from the Equinoctial Line,
for the 1 a Clock Hour 78.30
for the 2 a Clock Hour 65.45
for the 3 a Clock Hour 51.56
for the 4 a Clock Hour 36.24
and transfer the distances to the Arches drawn on the Cieling: For then straight lines drawn through the mark in the Arch, and through the mark in the Equator, and prolonged both ways to a convenient length, shall be the several Hours lines (aforesaid;) and when the Sun Shines upon the Glass at
Nodus; its Beames shall reflect upon the Hour of the Day.
Some Helps to a young
Dyalist for his more orderly and quick making of
Dyals.
IT may prove somewhat difficult to those that are unpractised in Mathimatical projections, to
[Page 347] divide a Circle into 360 Degrees (or which is all one) a Semi-circle into 180, or a Quadrant into 90 Degrees; and though I have taught you in the projectioning the
Horizontal Dyal the original way of doing this, yet you may do it a spedier way by a line of Cords, which if you will be curious in your Practise, you may make your self; or if you cacount it not worth your while, you may by it already made on Box or Brass of most Mathematical Instrument Makers. This Instrument is by them call a
[...] which does not only accommodate you with the divisions of a Quadrant, but also serves for a Ruler to draw straight lines with; the manner of making it is as follows.
Describe upon a smooth
[...]at even grain'd Board a quarter of an whole Circle as BC, whose Radius AB or AC may be
[...]our Inches if you intend to m
[...]ke large Dyals or two Inches, if small; but if you will you may have several lines of Chords on your
Scale or
Rule. Divide this Quadrant into 90 equal parts, as you were taught in the making the
Horizontal Dyal
[figure]
[Page 348]Then draw close by the edge of your straight Ruler a line parallel to the edge, and at about ½
[...] part of an Inch a second line parallel to that, and at about ⅛ of an Inch a third line parallel to both. Then place one Foot of your Compasses at the beginning of the first degree on the Quadrant described on the Board, as at B, and open the other Foot to the end of the first degree, and transfer that distance upon your Rule, from B to the first mark or division, between the two first drawn lines. Then place one Foot of your Compasses again at the beginning of the first Degree, on the Quadrant described on the Board, as at B, and open the other Foot to the end of the second Degree, and transfer that distance upon your Rule from B to the second mark or division between the two first drawn Lines; and thus measure the distance of every Degree from the first Degree describe on the Quadrant, and transfer it to the Rule. But for distinction sake, you may draw every tenth division from the first line parallel to the edge of the third line, and mark them in succession from the beginning with 10, 20, 30, to 90▪ and the fifth Divisions you may draw half way between the second and the third parallel lines; the single Divisions only between the two first parallel lines. So is your lines of Chords made.
The use of the Line of
Chords.
AS its use is very easie, so its convenience is very great; for placing one Foot of your Compasses at the first Division on the
Scale, and opening the other to the 60th Degree, you may with the points of your Compasses (so extended) describe a Circle, and the several Divisions, on the
Scale shall be the Degrees of the four Quadrants of of that Circle, as you may try by working backwards, to what you were just now taught in the
[Page 349] making the
Scale: For as before you measured the distance of the degrees of the Quadrant, and transfer'd them to the
Scale, so now you only measure the Divisions on the
Scale, and transfer them to the Quadrant, Semi-circle, or whole Circle discribed on your Paper. For
Example,
If you would measure 30 Degrees in your described Circle, place one Foot of your Compasses at the beginning of Divisions on the
Scale, as at A, and extend the other Foot to the Divisions marked 30, and that distance transfer'd to the Circle, shall be the distance of 30 Degrees in that Circle. Do the like for any other number of Degrees.
You may draw your Dyal first on a large sheet of Paper, if your Dyal Plane be so large; if it be not so large, draw it on a smaller piece of Paper; Then rub the back-side of your Paper Dyal with small Coal, till it be well black't; and laying your Paper Dyal on your Dyal Plane, so that the East West, North, or South lines of your Paper agree exactly with the East, West, North or South scituation of your Dyal Plane; then with Wax or Pitch fasten the Corners of the Paper on the Plane, and laying a straight Ruler on the Hour-lines of your Dyal, draw with the blunted point of a Needle by the side of the Ruler, and the Small-coal rub'd on the back side of the Paper will leave a mark of the lines on the Plane.
If you will have the lines drawn Red, you may rub the back side of your Paper with
Vermillion; if blew with
Verditer; if Yellow with
Orpiment, &c. Then draw upon these marked Lines with Oyl Colours, as you please.
[Page 350]If your Dyal Decline far towards the East or West, the Hour Lines (unless projected to a very great lenght) will run very close to one another; therefore in this case you must project your Dyal
[figure]
on a large Table, or sometimes on the Floor of a Room, and cut it off as far as you think good, from the Center; for the further from the Center, the larger the distance of the Hour-lines.
See the Figure.
An Explanation of some Words of Art used in this.
ANgle. The meeting or joyning of two Lines.
Arch. A part of a Circle.
Axis. The straight Line that runs through the Center of a Sphere, and both ways through the Circumference: though in
Dyalling it is all one with the Diameter of a Circle.
Clinatory. See Fol. 8, 9, 10.
Chord. See Fol. 44, 45, 46.
Complement. The number that is wanting to make up another number 90 Degr. or 180 Degr. or 360 Degrees.
[Page 351]Contingent. A Line crossing the Substile at right Angles.
Degree. See Fol. 12.
Diameter. The longest straight Line that can be contained within a Circle,
viz. the Line that passes through the Center to the Circumference both ways.
Dyal plane. See
Fol. 7.
Elevation of the
Pole. So many degrees as the
Pole is elevated above the
Horizon.
Equinoctial. The
Equinoctial is a great Circle that runs evenly between the two
Poles of the World. But when we name the
Equinoctial in this Book, we mean a small Circle which represents it, and is the Circle or Arch of a Circle which is divided into equal parts, to find thereby the unequal parts on the
Line of Contingence. In the
Horizontal Dyal it is that Arch of a Circle marked GCH.
Horizon. Is a great Circle encompassing the place we stand upon; but in Dyalling it is represented by a straight Line, as in
Operat. III. In the
South Dyal the Line VI A VI is the
Horizontal Line.
Latitude. The Latitude of a Place is the number of Degrees contained between the
Equinoctial and the place inquired after.
Line of Contingence. See
Contingent.
Magnetick Needle. The Needle touch'd with the
Loadstone, to make it point to the North.
Meridian. Is a great Circle of Heaven passing thro' the North and South points of the
Horizon; but in Dyalling it is represented by a straight
Line, as in
Operat. II. in the
Horizontal Dyal the Line XII. A is a
Meridian line.
Nadir. The point directly under our Feet.
Nautical Compass. Is the Compass used by
Navigators, whereon is marked out all the 32 Winds or Points of the Compass.