1. Means of preventing the Introduction of Infection.

The introduction of infection is prevented by great caution in admitting men who come from jails, guardships, tenders, captured vessels, and in general those who are remarkably ragged and dirty, or who have come from ships or other places where the fever is known to have prevailed.

The mode of manning the navy by pressing is, I suppose, unavoidable, [Page 2]but it is one of the greatest means of sowing the seeds of disease. As this cannot be remedied, and as the exigency of the service in time of war does not permit that persons of any description be excluded, it becomes highly necessary to prevent the effects of the contagion that may adhere to them. This is done by stripping and washing their bodies, by cutting off their hair, and destroying all their clothes, before they are allowed to mix with the ship's company in which they are going to enter. Those who have strictly put those methods in practice know how effectual and in­fallible they are, and exact attention is necessary, as a single infected man, or any part of his cloathing, will spread sickness through a whole ship's company. Men in health who are remarkably dirty, or that have been in the company of those who have been affected with an infectious fever, will communicate disease as much as the sick themselves, and the jail dis­temper has been known to proceed from prisoners who were not them­selves affected by it. When we reflect what havoc an infectious fever sometimes makes in a ship, it will appear how infinitely important it is to attend exactly to this circumstance; for if the cause of the sickliness of particular ships be traced to its source, it will generally be found to have arisen from taking in infected men at Spithead, or wherever else the ship's company may have been compleated.

2. Means of preventing the Production of Infection.

Fevers of an infectious nature are not always produced by the introduc­tion of any evident causes of contagion, but the infection seems frequently to arise spontaneously, as it were, being either actually generated, or being excited or rendered noxious, when it would otherwise have been lain dor­mant and inactive. The means of preventing this sort of infection in a ship are chiefly fresh air and cleanliness, shelter from cold and wet, and keeping the ship from being too much crouded. Nature has wisely con­trived our instincts for avoiding filth, by rendering those places loathsome to the senses which have been long crouded with numbers of people, and by making it offensive both to ourselves and others to keep the same cloathes long in contact with the body. It is this, joined to a narrow and confined situation, that gives rise to the jail distemper, and fevers of a [Page 3]like kind that originate in hospitals and ships where similar circumstances concur.

The means that have been found most effectual for keeping men clean, and preventing them from neglecting their persons, from poverty, sloven­liness, or parsimony, have been,

• 1. To see that all that enter be provided with a proper change of linen, and that a weekly review be made to see that the men are clean. Every man should be made answerable for a certain necessary quantity of slops, and it has been the practice of some of our most able and intelligent Com­manders to form the ship's company into divisions and squads, the weekly inspection of whose persons and clothing is assigned to as many respective officers. ^† This would both prevent the unhealthiness arising from nasti­ness, and diminish the means of drunkenness procured by disposing of slops. A review of this kind would also prevent seamen from allowing their wet and dirty cloathes to lie in a chest or corner till they are cor­rupted, and become a source of nastiness and disease. It will appear clearly to any one who reflects well on the subject, that a regulation of this kind is as necessary as any other piece of duty, and it perhaps deserves to be made an article of the public instructions, instead of being left to the dis­cretion of officers. There are ships that allow the men a day in the week for washing their cloathes, and I have observed the best effects from it. The trouble that is taken in attending to neatness, order, and sobriety, never fails to be rewarded with a healthy ship's company, to the great sa­tisfaction and private comfort of the Commander, and the unspeakable advantage of the public service. It is of consequence that the Purser should lay in a sufficient quantity of slops, suited to the climate for which the ship is destined, in order that there may be a supply after she has been for some time from home upon a distant station. ^‖
• [Page 4]2. To air and exercise the men above decks, when their duty does not lead them to do so, and to air their hammocks by exposing them upon deck, especially after the ports have been long shut in consequence of bad weather. The hammocks cannot be thoroughly aired unless they are unlashed. This cannot with any convenience be done daily in a man of war, but it might be done from time to time by the different divisions in rotation, and the same may be said of scrubbing and washing. When they come to be lain upon after these operations, the same agreeable sen­sation is produced that one experiences from a change of linen, which highly conduces to health and pleasure, like all other natural and mode­rate gratifications.
• 3. To keep the ports open as much as possible, and to have scuttles in them for the admission of fresh air. This is extremely useful every where, but particularly in the West-Indies. It should never be neglected to cut scuttles in the sides of frigates destined for this station, for otherwise the heat between decks is almost insupportable.
• 4. To fumigate frequently with fires of wood sprinkled with pitch or rosin, carried about between decks in a pot or moveable grate, or in a tub with snot in it when the ports can be opened; or, if the weather will not admit of this, to burn gun-powder wetted with vinegar. The sick berth should be occasionally washed all over with vinegar. The good effects of fire and smoke is strongly evinced by this, that when it was the custom for frigates to have their kitchens between decks they were remarkably more healthy than they are now that they have them under the forecastle, where the heat and smoke are dissipated without being diffused through the ship, and causing a draught of air upwards as formerly, not to speak of the benefit and comfort arising from having a large fire round which men may assemble and warm and dry themselves in a sheltered place. I leave it to those who preside in the construction of the navy how far an al­teration in this respect would be adviseable in fitting this class of ships.
• 5. To wash and scrape all the decks frequently. ^* Washing may pro­duce [Page 5]unwholesome moisture, and care should be taken to do it in dry weather, if possible, and as early in the day as convenient, that there may be time for it to dry. It is after washing that fires are most applicable and useful. ^†
• 6. To work ventilators, and to put down wind-sails, as often, and for as long a time as possible. This is more particularly necessary in large ships, where the mass of foul air is so great, and so remote from the ac­cess of the external air, that it cannot be thoroughly swept off but by such contrivances. Under this head it may be recommended to keep the decks as clear as possible from chests and other lumber which are in the way of sweeping and washing, and prevent the free course of the air.
• 7. To berth the watches alternately, which at the same time preserves the trim of the ship. By this arrangement men lie much cooler, and it is more agreeable in every respect, as well as more healthy.

Though foul air and uncleanliness are the chief causes that produce an infectious fever, yet excessive fatigue, too much exposure to heat, cold, and wet, scanty or unwholesome food, bad water and intoxication con­tribute severally to awaken the seeds of this disease.

3. Means of Eradicating Infection.

It too frequently happens that from a neglect of the means that have been mentioned, an infectious fever comes to prevail, and when once it has gained ground adheres obstinately to a ship, in spite of cleanliness, good air and diet, and all the other means that have been prescribed for [Page 6]preventing infection. In this situation some measures have been thought of for eradicating this subtle poison. The means that have been found most effectual are,

1. To keep the sick separate from the sound, and to cut off all inter­course as much as possible, in order to prevent its progress. For this end it is necessary to appropriate a sick berth to contagious complaints, and not only to prevent the men in health from gossiping about it, but to find out and separate such complaints as soon as possible, both to pre­vent them from being caught by others, and because recent complaints are more manageable and curable. Those whose profession it is to super­intend the health of the ship would find it for their ease and interest as well as duty, to walk over the different decks once a day or every other day in order to discover early those who are taken ill.

2. It has been mentioned before that the cloathes of men are as dan­gerous a vehicle of infection as their persons, and it should be made a strict and invariable rule that in case of death from Fever or Flux, every article of bedding and clothing about the body be thrown over-board along with it. Upon the same principle, in case of recovery from either of these diseases, as it seldom can be afforded to destroy the clothes and bedding, they should if possible be smoked and then scrubbed or washed before the men join their messes and return to duty, as their hammocks will frequently have occasion to come in contact with those of the other men. If the trouble of all this be objected to, let us reflect for a moment how much more troublesome sickness itself is, how noisome and disagree­able, and what a clog it is to publick service; not to mention the regard due to the sufferings of the objects themselves.

3. It sometimes adheres to the timbers for months and years together and can be eradicated only by a thorough fumigation. This cannot well be done but when the ship is in such a situation that every person can be turned out in order that pots of charcoal and sulphur may burn between decks while the smoke is confined by shutting the hatches. An action with the enemy has been known to purge a ship from infection.

4. To persevere more regularly and frequently in the use of fires, and in the practice of scraping and washing the decks and beams, particularly [Page 7]in the sick births where hot vinegar should be sprinkled twice a day on the beams planks and sides. The sumes of pitch tar and other resinous sub­stances has a more powerful effect than any other smoke, and besides what is thrown upon the fires, it would be useful to throw pitch upon a red hot iron, or to immerse a loggerhead in a vessel where there is pitch or tar. It has an extremely good effect also to white-wash all the decks and beams with quicklime. But a complete smoking is the only radical and effectual remedy and the fooner it is applied the better, for the longer infection continues the more it accumulates.

It sometimes happens that the numbers of sick in a ship are so great that it is not possible to take proper and effectual measures for stopping the progress of disease. But when she can be cleared of her sick by sending them to an hospital, no pains should be spared to extirpate the remaining seeds of infection. Let their clothing and bedding be sent along with them: their hammocks, utensils, and whatever they leave behind, should be smoked, and either scrubbed or washed before they are used by other men, or mixed with the ship's stores: the decks, sides, and beams of their berths should be well washed, scraped, smoked and dried by fire, and finally white-wasned all over with quick-lime.

It may be proper to mention in this place that the orlop, and all be­low it, by being below water is more apt to become a receptacle of nasti­ness, and by being less under the eye of the Captain and other officers, is more apt to be neglected. I think I have seen sickliness propagated and continued from this circumstance when the quarter-deck and gun­decks have been kept sufficiently clean. The well and the hold should also be attended to, and a grate with fire in it should be let down from time to time. When the hold has been long shut, it becomes full of a deadly air, and the common method of trying it by a lighted candle is so well known as hardly to need mentioning. ^†

4. Means of Guarding against Infection.

Lastly. If an infection actually prevails, and one is unavoidably ex­posed to it, the best means to prevent its taking effect are, to live in a hearty and generous manner, particularly in the article of drink, but al­ways within the limits of intoxication. It is of the utmost consequence to avoid excess, irregularity and exposure, such as intoxication, fatigue, fasting, watching and getting wet. To these may be added certain affec­tions of the mind, such as care, grief and fear, which in like manner weaken the powers of life, and render the constitution more accessible to the assaults of disease. I have already mentioned separation as a principal means of stopping the progress of contagion, but those who are under the necessity of approaching the sick should avoid close contact and their breath, they should not go within their influence with an empty stomach, and should smell to vinegar and camphor when near them.

It is highly worth while here to observe that the influence of infectious distempers does not extend so far as is commonly imagined. It is now known for certain that the infection of the Plague does not extend above a few yards, and the same seems to hold with regard to malignant fevers. This discovery is very valuable by ascertaining the degree of risk, for when men imagined themselves in the same danger when at a considerable distance from the seat of a particular disease, as if they had been in contact with the sick, they exposed themselves rashly and unnecessarily to the in­fection.

All the preceding observations concerning infection are particularly ap­plicable to the fevers prevailing at sea, which however are not so frequent in this climate as in England. ^† There are other sources of fever only to [Page 9]be met with on shore, such as the neighbourhood of woods and marshes, the vapours of which produce intermitting and bilious fevers, and they deserve attention here, as sailors are occasionally exposed to them. The preservatives against such fevers; besides temperance and the avoiding of cold, wet and fatigue, are cold bathing, good living, particularly in the article of drink, and the use of some bitter medicine, such as an infusion of Peruvian bark or chamomile flowers.

REMARKS on the WEST-INDIA Station.

The following remarks upon this subject are important, as they parti­cularly respect the West-India station.

1. The abuse of spirituous liquors is extremely pernicious every where, but a number of circumstances concur to make it particularly so here. Rum is not only cheap and easily procured, but that which is sold to sailors is generally of an extremely bad and unwholesome quality. Add to this that this species of debauchery is more hurtful in a hot than in a cold or temperate climate. No pains should therefore be spared to keep such rum from them, and care should be taken that they be supplied with what is old and sound. A water or two more should be added to the grog in this climate, or wine should be served in place of it.

2. Seamen should be allowed to go on shore as little as possible, especi­ally at night, for they are here exposed not only to the land air from marshes that are generally near the shore, and thereby catch intermittent fevers, but they find the means and opportunity of getting drunk. The sure and natural remedy of these evils is to prevent them as much as possible from going ashore, and on no account to permit them to stay all night. Many valuable lives would be saved by each ship hiring a boat's crew of negroes or others seasoned to the climate for the purpose of wooding and watering. It most commonly happens that part of the ship's company are under the necessity of performing these duties, and in this case they will be preserved from harm by each man taking half a wine glass or less of the tincture of Peruvian bark before going ashore. ^† If this is [Page 12]too expensive, or cannot be supplied in sufficient quantity, any bitter tincture, or even a dram of plain spirits, will in some measure answer the same purpose.

3 The cold bath, especially in the morning, before the heat is intense and the perspiration profuse, has been found of the utmost benefit in pre­serving health in hot clinates. Those who have had the perseverance to make their men practice it, have been amply rewarded for their trouble by their ship's company remaining healthy. I could name instances of this fact both in the East and West-Indies.

4. Care should be taken not to harrais men too much with labour or other hardships upon first coming to this climate, for these are favourable to the attack of the fevers and fluxes with which almost all ships are more or less seasoned upon their first arrival.

5. As men are more subject to sickness in port than at sea, this might be remedied by making the ship ride with a spring upon the cable, and by making her lie as much out of the lee of the land as is safe and con­venient, especially where the adjacent shore is muddy or swampy. This last circumstance is in some situations of the utmost consequence, and a hundred fathoms in a road has been known to make a most essential dif­ference in the Lealth of a ship's company.

OF WATER.

As water is one of the articles most essential to the health of a ship's company, it deserves particular attention. Spring water is to be preferred to running water, as the latter, especially in a hot climate which teems with life, is apt to be impregnated with decayed vegetable and animal sub­stances, such as leaves, grass, wood and infects. This is the most pre­judicial [Page 13]kind of impurity, for the mineral impregnations common in springs are seldom at all unwholesome, and do not tend like the other to make the water corrupt. It is of consequence that the casks be well sea­soned by age and use, and a fumigation with sulphur before they are filled has the best effect in preventing them from contaminating the water. It has also been found that butts by being filled for some time with sea water, are thereby prevented from communicating any bad quality to fresh water. If running water only can be had, the best means of ren­dering it pure and sweet is to put a pint of quick-lime into each butt when it is filled. I have mentioned that this has been thought to have some effect in preventing the flux. There are several other substances that have been found useful in correcting bad water, such as allum, cream of tartar, burnt biscuit, vinegar and acid fruits, such as tamarinds. ^* If water is grossly impure, filtering is one of the best means of purifying it. As a dripping-stone will not produce enough for a ship's company, the following expeditious method may be practised. Let a quantity of sand be put at the bottom of a barrel placed on one end, without the head, and let another barrel of a much smaller size, with both ends knockt out, or an open cylinder of any kind, be placed erect in it, and almost filled with sand; if impure water be poured into the small barrel or cylinder, it will rise up through the sand of both barrels, and appear pure above the sand of the large one in the interval between it and the small one. But if water should be offensive by being long kept, the most effectual and expeditious method of sweetening it is by exposing it to the air in as divided a state as possible; and this is best done by Mr. Osbridge's machine, which no ship should be without. If it is wanting, the place of it may in some measure be supplied by blowing air through the water with a long­nozzled bellows, or the following contrivance will be found to afford a sufficient supply of sweet water to particular messes, and will answer the purpose of a dripping-stone. Let the narrow mouth of a large funnel be filled with a bit of spunge, over which let there be a layer of sand and [Page 14]gravel covered with a piece of flannel, and over the whole another layer of sand. Care must be taken to change the sand, spunge, &c. whenever they become loaded with the impurities of the water.

There should be in every ship an apparatus for distilling water in case of distress. This consists merely of a head and worm adapted to the com­mon boiler, and the distillation may go on while the victuals are boiling. ^* More than eight gallons of excellent fresh water may be drawn off in an hour, from the copper of the smallest ship of war.