LETTER I.
To His Grace, THOMAS, Lord Archbishop of Canterbury.

THAT high Station wherewith the King has Recompenc'd Your Merits, and the great Trust His Majesty has reposed in Your GRACE during his Absence, shews his Confidence in Your Ability, as well [Page 2] to Govern the State as the Church. Since therefore being lately Invested with a share of the Regal Authority, you had occasion to know more intimately Our King's Power and Prerogatives, I thought my self oblig'd to give Your GRACE an Account of those of the King of Poland; to the end, that compa­ring both together, you might more sensibly perceive the Excellency of our Own Consti­tution, which makes the Greatness of the King inseparable from the Interest of the People: For when the Executive Power is as vigilant to see our Laws obey'd, as the Le­gislative has been provident in making them, England can justly boast of a much greater Happiness, than either Poland or any other Kingdom of Europe.

From the Year 550, to the Year 1698. Having, My LORD, not been a full Twelve Month at the late King of Poland's Court, I cannot pretend to be throughly ac­quainted with that Kingdom; yet I find that, like most other Countries, it has undergone several Changes in its Constitution since the middle of the VIth Century (at which time it began to be a distinct Nation) during the Reigns of the two great Houses of Piastus and Jagello.

Former Power of the Kings of Poland. Ever since the time of Lechus its Foun­der, the Kings thereof have been Elected to the Crown after an Hereditary manner, tho' not by an Hereditary Title: They have re­ally been Absolute, and their Will went for a Law; for then they made Peace and War when they pleas'd, Levied as many Troops as they thought fit, Punish'd or Pardon'd at [Page 3] Pleasure, and Rewarded where they saw Con­venient: And all the Administration, either of Public or Private Affairs was so wholly lodg'd in the King's Hands, that I have heard the Poles themselves say, That Sigismund II. A. D. 1574.the last King of the Jagellonic Family, was to the full as Absolute as either the King of France or Denmark is now.

Whilst the Kings of Poland thus maintain­ed Advantage thereby.a Supream Power over their Subjects, they exceedingly enlarged their Dominions, were both fear'd Abroad, and belov'd at Home, Commanded Potent and Numerous Armies into the Field, Executed most Enterprizes speedily, and were almost always sure of Suc­cess; and this because they did not then, as now, depend upon the lingering Determina­tion, and tedious Conclusions of a Turbulent Diet. But the Family of Jagello being once Extinct, by the Death of Sigismund II. who had resign'd his Kingdom to the Senate and Polish Gentry, and given them full Power and Authority to dispose thereof as they thought fit, the Crown of Poland was anew declared Elective, to the end that all the Princes of Christendom, who had due Merits and Quali­fications, might have a Right to Aspire there­unto.

Why Euro­pean Prin­ces Court the Polish Gentry. This gave occasion to most of the Princes of Europe ever since, to Court the Polish No­bility after their King's Death: And that ei­ther to get the succeeding Election deter­mined in their own Favour, or else to have some of their Friends Advanced to that great Dignity; but this most commonly rather with regard to their own private Interests, [Page 4] than out of any Respect to the Person they desired to Promote; as the Houses of Austria and Bourbon have always practis'd.

Nobilities Resolves thereupon, The Gentry of Poland therefore observing that several Princes at a time always Aspir'd to their Crown, and considering that not one of them had more Right than the rest; as like­wise that it lay altogether in their Power to choose whom they pleased, resolved Unani­mously to Elect none but such as should Con­descend, nay Swear, to observe the Terms and Conditions they proposed.

Abridge the Antient Power of their Prin­ces, Hereby the Poles by degrees have clip'd and limited the Antient Power of their Kings, and have reduc'd them to the Bounds we now find them to have, that is, barely to a third Part of the Grand Diet: For the Poles knew very well, that no Prince would be so Impru­dent as to scruple Submitting to any Condi­tions, to become Master of so considerable a Kingdom, to which he had no Right either by Birth or other Claim; and more especial­ly since these Conditions are neither Rigorous nor Dishonourable, but such as are decently consistent with the Regal Character he is to be Invested with.

And Consti­tute a Re­public. Thus the Polish Gentry, of a kind of Mo­narchical Government, have in time made a perfect Republic, consisting of three Orders; The King, Senate, and Gentry; which they call the Nobility.

Division of the People of Poland. Here, My Lord, I must take notice to Your GRACE, that the Polish Nation is divided into two sorts of People, the Gentry or Freeborn Subjects, who are hardly a Tenth Part of the Kingdom, and the Vassals, who [Page 5] are no better than Slaves to the Gentry, for they have no Benefit of the Laws, can Buy no Estates, nor Enjoy any Property no more than our Negroes in the West-Indies can and this because some Ages since the Com­mon People Revolting against their Lords, and having driven them out of the Nation, the Gentry came with a Foreign Power, and reduced them to a greater Subjection than be­fore, in which they have been kept ever since. So that the Government of Poland at present comprehends only the King and Gen­try. By a Gentleman or Nobleman of Po­land, is understood a Person who either him­self, or his Family, has a Possession in Land: For they never Intermarry with the Common People. All the Gentry from the King's Sons to those that are but only Masters of an Acre of Land, are equally Noble, both by their Birth and the Constitution of the Kingdom; for no Body is Born either a Palatine, Senator, or Lord, but those Titles are always annex­ed to certain Employments, which the King only gives to Persons advanced in Age, and recommended by their Merits.

The Diet. The Diet of Poland (in some respects) re­sembles our Parliament, being made up of two Houses; the House of Senators, answerable to our House of Lords; and the House of Nuncio's, not unlike our House of Commons. The Senators are the Bishops, Palatines, Ca­stellans, and the Ten Great Officers of the Crown, in all about 142. In the Upper-House the Senators sit not by any Writ of Summons or Letters Patents as in England, but only by Virtue of the Great Preferments in [Page 6] the King's Gift, which they Enjoy for Life. So that the King wholly Constitutes the Upper House; but the Lower are the Representatives of the Gentry, Elected by them alone in their respective Provinces, without the Concur­rence of the Common People, who have no Priviledge to Vote in their Election. Inso­much, that at least Nine Parts in Ten of the People of Poland are excluded from having any Share in the Government.

Its Power. The Grand Diet of Poland is nothing else but the King, Senators, and Deputies assem­bled together in any Part of the Kingdom that his Majesty Commands. Without this great Assembly of the States, the King can neither Make nor Repeal Laws, Declare War nor Conclude a Peace, make no Alliance with any Foreign Princes, raise neither Troops nor Taxes, Coin no Money; and, in a word, can Determine no Matter of State of any Impor­tance, without the Universal Consent and Concurrence of this Parliament, which they term the Free States of Poland.

Motives for a mixt Go­vernment. Several powerful Motives have enclin'd the Poles to Establish this kind of mixt Government, which they take to be a just Temperament of whatever is to be found most Excellent in the several Monarchies, Aristocracies, and De­mocracies, that have been in the World. The most considerable of which Motives, as I have met with them in their Histories, or learn'd them from the most knowing among their Natives, are as follows.

A Motive. First, They think by this Judicious Choice of a Government, to preserve their King­dom from those Disorders which most com­monly [Page 7] attend Absolute Monarchies: Agree­ing herein with that Prince of Philosophers, Aristotle, who though he preferr'd this kind of Government to all Others, yet was he ne­vertheless obliged to own, that when ever it degenerated, it was the most pernicious of all.

Thus the Poles have temper'd the Exorbi­tant Power of their Kings, with the mixture of two other Governments, whereby they thought to secure their Liberty, a Thing al­ways most Dear to them, from the Arbitrary Will of a Prince, who by Imagining him­self above the Laws, might Fancy whatever his Passions prompted him to, allowable, and his truest Interest to be the Entire Subjection of his People. The miserable Examples of their Neighbours, the Turks and Moscovites, have sufficiently convinced them of this Truth; wherefore the Polish Nation thought it but convenient to limit the excessive Power of their Kings, and confine them to Rule with more Moderation and Ju­stice.

II. Motive. Secondly, The Poles have observ'd as well from their own Government, as from that of their Neighbours, that no small disad­vantage has flow'd from an Aristocracy. They could not be perswaded but that the Autho­rity of one Person was infinitely more easie to be Tolerated than that of many; for that either the Ambition or Jealousy of such would often disturb the Repose and Tranquility of the Public. Poland also began to Reflect up­on its former Miseries under its Woievods, when it was deplorably rent and torn by the [Page 8] Factions among those Palatines: Insomuch that even while it became a Conqueror from without, it was vanquish'd within, and that by its own Force. This gave the Poles no small dislike to an Aristocracy, which they have resolved never more to admit among them.

III. Motive. The Third Reason of State, which has ob­liged the Poles to reject a Democracy, is, that they look upon that sort of Government to be the most dangerous of all, being the easiest enflam'd, and the greatest Enemy to true Nobility. Its first Maxim is, To procure a Ʋniversal Levelling, or making all alike; where­by, under the Notion of a common Liberty, they weaken and enervate those great Geni­us's which were design'd to Govern and Pro­tect them. How then could it be expected that the Descendents of those mighty War­riers who Founded the Polish Nation, and have so long maintain'd the Honour of it by their Valour, should submit to have their Blood debased, by mixing it with the Ignoble Vul­gar?

The Tyranny of Laws, which the Nobles are subjected to in an Absolute Common­wealth, would be too rude a Check to this Ambition which the Poles have always had to Command over their Vassals, and therefore they have always entertain'd a secret Odium for those Grecian Republics, that Banish'd their greatest Statesmen, meerly because they would not have them gain too fast upon the Affections of the People.

If any should perhaps doubt of the perni­cious Consequences of a popular Government, [Page 9] where Reason does not so much reign as an Unruly violence of a People, who know no other Laws than those of their Passions; let them cast their Eyes on the Heats of the Ro­man Empire, who were often ready to Over­turn the State, had not the Senate speedily applied a prudent Remedy. But there are o­ther Examples more Modern, as the Revolt of the Cosacks, and the last Troubles in Bo­hemia. To these also may be added the Re­volutions of our own Nation in the Time of Charles I. when the Fury of the People ex­tended their Rage, even to the dipping their Hands in this Prince's Blood.

Politicians do generally own, that the People are a wild Beast, which ought rather to be led than left at Liberty, and by con­sequence have pronounced it most Perilous to acquiesce under their Subjection. An A­narchy would undoubtedly do more harm in a day, than a Tyrant could in all his Reign. If he Punishes, 'tis with some pre­tence of Justice, when nothing can abate the Peoples Rage, but an utter Extinction of whatever is placed over their He [...]ds.

A mixt Government therefore made out of all these Three, is that which has proved most Advan­tage of a mixt Go­vernment.Agreeable to the Polish Nation, being a just Medium between the dangerous Extremities of an Absolute Monarchy, and those of Aristo­cracy and Democracy. It is this the Poles have pitch'd upon as most proper to preserve the public Liberty, and to perpetuate the Happi­ness of their State; being, it seems, perswa­ded that a Body Politic resembles a Humane in this, that as the one borrows all its Vigour [Page 10] and Health from a Just Temperament of the different Humours that compose it; so the other depends absolutely on that of the Three before-mention'd Forms of Government. And moreover, as the former subsists by the mutual Opposition of contrary Qualities, so the King, Senate and Gentry of Poland having in some measure different Interests and Incli­nations, are not only hinder'd from deviating into vicious Extremities, but also through a Noble Emulation are excited to labour care­fully for the Good of the Public.

Division of the Repub­lic. The Republic is divided into Two States, the Kingdom of Poland, and the Great Dutchy of Lithuania; yet both which are but as one Body, having the same King, the same Par­liament, the same Laws, the same Privileges, the same Religion, and, as the natural result of all these, the same Interest. These Two States are so very well United, that a King cannot be Elected, a Law made, nor any State-Business done, without the mutual Con­sent of both. But, My Lord, as the King is the Prime and Chief Member of this Re­public, I will give Your GRACE an Account of his present Power and Prerogatives.

Kings pre­sent Power and Prero­gatives. The Poles are too proud a Nation to agree with those Politicians that measure the Gran­deur of a Prince, and Happiness of a State, by the Despotic Power of him that Governs it; and therefore those pernicious Maxims of Tyrants, Si Lubet, Licet; Oderint dum Me­tuant, and the like, would be but ill receiv'd among a People that have all along secured their Liberties by their Prudence and Valour. [Page 11] This Vassalage would suit well enough with the Slaves of Asia and Africk, or with the Moscovites and Turks, who all suffer them­selves to be govern'd like Beasts, and led by the Nose according to the different Caprice or Pleasure of their Prince.

His Happi­ness. As for the Kings of Poland, they may rest in security in the Bosom of their Country, even amidst the Noise of Arms, either with­out or within their Dominions, since they have always their Subjects to crowd about them for their Guards, thro' indispensable Inclinations. For what contributes chiefly to the Happiness of these Princes, is, the Loyal Observance and voluntary Obedience paid them even by those that are at Liberty to do the contrary. I have often heard Monsieur de Polignac, the French Ambassador, say at Warsaw, That he thought a King of Poland more Happy in his Person and Condition, than a King of France. Nevertheless this Authority of the King of Poland is so alloy'd by the Laws of the Land, that it does not exact more Vene­ration from the Nobles or Gentry, than they think he deserves: For tho' their Behaviour be generally extraordinary Observant, yet do they tacitly seem to call in question the Power they have limited, and often refuse that Duty which they have deem'd him wor­thy of by his Election.

Unhappi­ness. The Polish Nobility make no Difference between their King's Right, and those of the Senate and Deputies, affirming, That since these three Members compose but one Body, they ought equally to share in the same Bene­fits and Injuries, and consequently ought all [Page 12] either to Reward the one, or Revenge the other.

A great Inconveni­ence to the State. The small Authority therefore of their Kings, and the Impossibility of their Acting by themselves, has at all times exposed Po­land to the Insults of their Neighbours, and the Rage of their own People, as may be seen in the Civil Wars of the Cosacks, and the Treachery and Sedition of the Confederates which could never have arriv'd at so great height, if the King had had but sufficient Power to have suppress'd them. Also the Great Marshal of the Crown Lubomirski, would never have had the Boldness to have op­pos'd King Casimir's Designs openly, and to have form'd so many Factions against the Court, had he not had some Assurances of re­maining Unpunish'd. This makes the King of Poland to be stiled a King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, since he has no better than Companions and Equals for his Subjects.

Instances of Poles Af­fections to their Kings. We have divers Instances of the Poles love for their Kings, and particularly by their once enforcing the Right of Sigismund III. to the Kingdom of Sweden, in an obstinate War which they began several times, as likewise in supporting afterwards the Pretences of Ʋla­dislaus VII. to Moscovy: To omit divers o­thers of a more ancient Date. This Respect of their obliges them frequently to come and spend their Estates at Court, thinking to aug­ment their Princes Grandeur by their Prodi­gality and Magnificence. This appears by the mistake made by Gregory King of Bohemia, at the Interview between him and Casimir the Great, at Glogan, (which Place the former [Page 13] had demanded to bound the Limits of Silesia) when he saluted a Private Gentleman, splen­didly Cloath'd, for the King of Poland.

Modern Kings Pow­er. The Custom and Inclination of the Poles runs so strong towards Honouring their Prince, that all they have, or are able to do, even to the Destruction of their Lives and Fortunes, they are willing to lavish in his Ser­vice, without expecting any greater Recom­pence than the Glory of Waiting on His Ma­jesty's Person. Insomuch, that a King of Poland who is Couragious and Prudent, Just and Sober, Liberal and Religious; one that observes the Laws and Constitutions of his Kingdom, and in a word, who has no other Interest but the Common Good and Safety of his Subjects, is as much Respected and Ho­nour'd, and as faithfully Obey'd both in time of Peace and War; nay, as formidable to all his Enemies as most Princes in Europe.

As to what relates to War, no Monarch has greater Advantages than himself; for he is neither at the trouble of raising Forces nor Expence in Maintaining them; his Business being only to convene the Diet, and they do all these things to his Hand. After War is once declar'd, he can continue the same, either by himself or his Generals, can Regulate his Troops, and see his Army duly paid out of the Treasury of the Republic. He has a great deal of reason to hope for Success in his Ex­peditions, because that not having under­taken them on his own account, those that engag'd him to them will infallibly support him in them, and the rather, by reason that [Page 14] what was done was altogether with their Consent. This has prov'd the Cause of al­most neverfailing Success to the Polish Arms till of late Days, the King and his Subjects not having been in so good Intelligence with each other as formerly.

Abroad and at Home. When the King is in the Army in Person, he has the Supreme Authority there, gives Battle when he pleases, and Besieges Towns as often as he thinks fit: And likewise Com­mands absolutely all the Gentry to follow him into the Field on Horseback at ever so little warning. At Home he has the free Nomina­tion of all Ecclesiastical Benefices, and of all Se­cular Employments, as well Military as Civil throughout the whole Extent of his Domini­ons; without speaking of a great number of Royal Demesnes, which together with the State-Dignities he confers on those that have deserv'd them. He can bestow as considerable Preferments as any Prince in Europe, and ob­lige and raise the Fortune of whom he pleases. He has his Vote in Naming Cardinals, as well as other Roman Catholic Kings have. He can send and receive Ambassadors pri­vately in Matters relating only to himself, but as to what concerns the Republic the Se­nate must have their Share in it. He can Call, Prorogue, and Dissolve the Diet at Pleasure. In a word, the Poles term him, The Protector of their Laws and Privileges; The Distributor of Honours; The Supream Head of their Re­public; and Supream General of their Forces.

The great Respect paid him. The Poles attend his Person Uncover'd: The Chief Senators generally Serve him at Table, first tasting of the Cup before they [Page 15] present him with it. His Subjects never sit before him, nor cover their Heads any where but in the Diet, and there too the Senators are only allow'd that Liberty, for the Depu­ties stand behind with their Furr'd Caps in their Hands. The late King John Sobieski din'd always in Public, and I never saw any sit down with him at Table when he eat at Court, except the Queen, his Children and foreign Ministers: Yet when he either Hunt­ed or Travell'd, I have known some private Gentlemen to have had that Honour: Nay even his own Servants that waited on him were then admitted to eat with him. This his Majesty knew was absolutely necessary for him to allow of, since by refusing any this Favour, he might incur the Displeasure and Hatred of the whole Noblesse. This was verifi­ed in the Case of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who for having refused the Polish Gentry to eat with him, was utterly excluded from the Crown that had been design'd him by Lewis King of Hungary and Poland, his Father in Law.

His Titles and other Preroga­tives. The Poles when they speak to their King, call him, Mosci Krullo, or Milociwy Krullo, which is as much as to say, Great or Merciful King. The Titles Ambassadors give him, or which are commonly made use of in Acts of Parliament, or other Instruments sign'd by him and made in his Name, are these; Fre­deric Augustus II. King of Poland, Great Duke of Lithuania, Duke of Russia, Prussia, Maso­via, Samogitia, Kiovia, Volhynia, Podolia, Pod­lachia, Livonia, Smolensko, Severia, and Czer­nikovia. All sorts of Gold, Silver, or Brass Coins are Stamp'd with his Image and Name. [Page 16] All Justice is Administred in his Name, and at Church they always Pray for the King and Royal Family.

His Pension, Houshold-Officers and Guards. When he is Crown'd the Diet allows him a Pension of about 140000 l. per Annum; which together with his Patrimonial Estate, main­tains him a very splendid Court. He has his Polish, German, and Hungarian Guards, and has the same Officers of his Houshold as other Queen Con­sorts Court, how main­tain'd.Kings have. While the Queen-Dowager lives, the Queen-Consort maintains her Court at the King's Charge, but after either the Queen-Dowagers Death or Marriage, or the King's Death, she has a Revenue Assign'd for that purpose, as will appear hereafter.

Kings Pa­trimonial Estate and Perquisites. Over and above the Pension which the Diet settles upon the King and Queen, which in that cheap Country serves to maintain them as high as our Kings live here; The King of Poland has great Incomes of his own, for the Poles never care to Elect a Poor Prince, for fear his Children may come to be a Charge to them after his Death. He gets be­sides vast Sums of Money for Nominations Employments, of which the late King did not scruple to sell, though 'twas directly con­trary to the Constitutions of the Kingdom. Nay, the Ecclesiastical Benefices which are so very considerable, have been put under Con­tribution by some cunning Artifice or other, as happen'd some Years since about the Na­ming of a Bishop of Cracow, whose Bishoprick is worth Eight Thousand Pounds Sterling per Annum, which will go further than Twenty Thousand Pounds in England. There were several that Aspir'd a long while to this Va­cant [Page 17] Dignity, and every one solicited what Friends he had at Court for the obtaining of it, but most applied themselves to the Queen, and begg'd of her (though she has no Authority of her own) to Intercede to the King in their Behalf. After a long Debate the Queen call'd the Abbot Malakowski aside (who was one of the Competitors, and a rich Man) and told him, That tho' there were several that aimed at that Bishoprick, yet she would Wager Fifty Thousand Crowns that he was pre­fer'd to them all. Whereupon the good Abbot thinking to venture nothing, being sure that either he should be Bishop, or should gain a considerable Sum, readily lays down the Money, and by way of an accidental Bargain, bought very dear his Bishoprick.

Late King's great Rich­es. It has been Calculated, that the late King, what by his Own Incomes, Pensions allow'd him from the Crown, and other Casualties, was worth about Three hundred thousand Pounds Sterling a Year, of which he did not spend much above one Hundred thousand, ha­ving had no Soldiers nor Army to Pay, or Maintain, but only his Guards and his Court. He hoarded up the greatest part of the Mo­ney in the Kingdom, and was reputed to have had as much ready Cash by him, as any Prince in Europe; all which nevertheless the Poles Vow'd they would have back again, when his Sons bought their Votes to be King.

The Crown Revenues. The Kings Crown-Revenues are Imposts upon Merchandizes, and upon the Jews, part of the Customs of Dantzick, and the Reve­nues of the Salt Mines of Cracow and other Places.

[Page 18] Queens Re­venues. The Queen's Revenue consists either in a Gift from the King her Husband, out of the Royal Revenues, with Consent of the States; or in an Annual Pension allow'd her by the Republick. The Gift from her Husband serves also for her Dower, and is called by the Poles what amounts to the Sense of the word Reformation, being the Reversion only of a certain number of Starostaships after the Death of those that Enjoy them. If the King chance to die before the Queen has this Reformation assign'd her, then the Republic gives her a Yearly Pension out of the Crown-Revenues, but this no longer than she conti­nues unmarried, or stays in the Realm, for otherwise in both those Cases the Queen Re­gent gets it, or else it reverts to the State. It may be observ'd, that the Queen Regent never comes by it without the Consent of the Diet, and that is no ordinary Expence to her to procure, by Purchasing almost all the Votes of that Mercenary Assembly. This may be seen in the Case of the present Queen-Dow­ager; for when the Queen her Predecessor Marry'd the Duke of Lorrain, she, observing that the Settlement of her Pension was like to be put off to the succeeding Diet, which is conven'd only once in three Years, thought it better to be at the Charge of gaining their Votes at that Session, than to lose three Years Income. This Revenue is generally compu­ted at half a Million Polish, which amounts to about Thirty Thousand English Pounds. As long as the Queen-Dowager enjoys this Pen­sion, the Queen-Regent can have none; for the Poles say, that it would be too much to Pension two Queens at once.

[Page 19] The King's Power li­mited in several re­spects. Tho' the King of Poland has many impor­tant Employments to distribute, yet his Power is always limited in the Distribution of them; for he cannot Name any of his Children, no nor so much as the Queen, to any Charge either Ecclesiastical or Temporal. Sigismund III. having a mind to give his Queen Constantia two Starostaships, vacant by the Death of Queen Anne, who died in the Year 1625. all the Gentry oppos'd it by a great Uproar in the Diet, and maintain'd vi­gorously, That a King of Poland ought not to part with any Office without their Con­sent. Neither can he Purchase any Lands for them in any part of the Kingdom, without Consent of the Diet; Although the late King bought several vast Territories in other Peo­ples Names, both in Russia, Prussia, and al­most all over the Kingdom; and besides pur­chas'd a Principality of the Emperor in Si­lesia, for Prince James his Eldest Son. But the Poles having long since discovered the Secret, pretended, when I was at Warsaw, that all those Lands must come to the Crown after the King's Death. Some of the Kings of Poland also have been so kind as to part with their Prerogatives in Ecclesiastical Mat­ters, so that now they retain only the Colla­tion of Benefices. As for the Foundation of Monasteries whatever Power the King may have left to Erect them, they must always be confirm'd by the Three Orders of the States. The King of Poland is likewise limited in divers other respects, for he can neither en­crease nor diminish the Number of Officers either of his Court or the Kingdom, nor Name [Page 20] any Stranger, that is not Naturaliz'd, to any Charge or Government; only in the Foot Army, and there too such a Person can pre­tend to no more than to be a Captain, or at most a Colonel. This may appear by the Ex­ample of Stephen Batori, who having had con­siderable Services done him by the Hungari­ans in the War against the Moscovites, he thought it but reasonable to Prefer some of them for Recompence, which extreamly in­cens'd the Poles, and particularly the Grand General so much, that he immediately there­upon resign'd his Staff. 'Tis also out of the Kings Power to advance some Natives; for all Citizens, Merchants, Tradesmen and their Sons, Country-Men, Labourers, and gene­rally all Artificers, are not only by the Con­stitutions of the Kingdom excluded from Pre­ferments, which the King has the Nomina­tion of, but also have not Liberty either of Buying or Enjoying Lands or Estates.

Nobility only capa­ble of Pre­ferment. 'Tis then the Nobility alone, or Freeborn of the Kingdom of Poland, the Great Dutchy of Lithuania, or of the other Provinces In­corporated into that Monarchy, that can pre­tend to any Preferment in the Republic: Wherefore the aforesaid King Batori think­ing to Advance his Nephews, by reason he had no Children, design'd to get them Naturalized in the Diet held the Thir­teenth of December 1586▪ but was pre­vented by Death. It must withal be un­derstood, that 'tis not every one of these that can Aspire or lay Claim to every Preferment, but only such as have Lands or Estates in the Kingdom, the Great Dutchy, or any other [Page 21] Incorporated Province where the Preferment lies. For a Free-born Native of the King­dom, though he has an Estate in it, yet can­not be a Governor of a City in Lithuania, nor have any kind of Employment there, without a setled Estate in that Country. But the Ad­vantage that all Freeborn Natives have, is, that they can Buy an Estate throughout the whole Extent of the Dominions of Poland.

Other Li­mitations of the Kings Power. There is another Inconvenience which very much Prejudices and Limits the King's Power, and the public Interest of the whole Com­monwealth; for where-ever a Noble Pole is once named to a Preferment, and is in actu­al possession of it, let him commit never so many Crimes against the Crown or State, he can never be depriv'd of his Employ, or turn'd out of it without the Unanimous Consent of the Diet, but shall continue in▪ the same for Life, even against a the Will of the Diet, if he has but one Member on his Side, who will protest against the Proceedings. For the Negative Voice of a Member of the Diet of Poland, has the same Force with a Negative of a King of England in Parlia­ment.

Inconveni­ences there­by. This pernicious Constitution occasions ma­ny Troubles and Animosities, for it encou­rages Unruly and Mutinous People to disturb the Commonwealth. Officers never serve the Republic faithfully; Treasurers arè thereby emboldened to give no Account of the Public Revenues; the Generals of the Army, and Governors of Provinces and Towns, do as they think fit, and most commonly mind their own private Affairs more than the Inte­rest [Page 22] of the Republic. In a word, though the Poles term this Constitution the greatest Mark of their Liberty, it inevitably Ruins the Foundation of the whole State, and every one sees what bad Consequences must and do ne­cessarily follow from this excessive Liberty, or rather Libertinism of every Private Officer of the Kingdom.

Why he is paid so great Re­spect. My Lord, This great Privilege of the Of­cers, makes them pay more than ordinary Respect to the King, before they are Digni­fy'd, and court him to give them a Charge which he can never afterwards take away. Moreover, this Power of the King's to Name such of the qualify'd Nobility, as best pleases him, to these important Employments, keeps all the Gentry in a great Dependance on him; for the design of the Republic in lodging the Nomination of Officers in the King's Hands, was, that he should take care to confer them on those that had best deserv'd them by their Services, either in Peace or War, and ex­clude such from them as had been Stubborn, Mutinous, and Unserviceable to the State. Another Reason that makes the King respect­ed, is the natural Ambition the Poles have to Aspire to the Honours of the Kingdom; for by their Constitutions all the Nobles (as they call them) or Free-born of the Land, are equal as to their Birth, and none, though ne­ver so Poor, ows precedence, unless through a Compliment, to any ever so Rich: Inso­much, that Preferments and Honours are the only Means by which they attain to Prece­dence, which is annex'd thereto, and ascer­tain'd by the Statutes and Laws.

[Page 23] Now one would think that this mighty Power which the King of Poland has to dispose of so many Places of Profit and Trust, so many Lands by Royal Tenure, and so many Benefices, must needs gain him the Love and Affection of those on whom they are conferr'd. But on the contrary, the Poles being none of the most grateful, and knowing too well that the King cannot dispose of those Preferments but to themselves; they believe that when he Grants them, he only gives back what of Right belongs to them; and that it is not so much an Act of Grace in him, as a piece of Justice.

Cities pre­sent their Keys upon his Ap­proach. When a King of Poland comes to any City, the Inhabitants are oblig'd immediately to present him with the Keys, and he can send his Regiment of Guards to take pos­session of the Gates. The Citizens of Dant­zick only have a Privilege to keep their own Keys, and to hinder all but a few Troops from following the King into the City. It is certain, that Dantzick has more Immuni­ties and Privileges than any other City of Po­land, insomuch that it may be rather look'd upon to be a small Republic of it self under Protection of that Kingdom, than a City subject to it. Nay, it has in a manner all the Marks of a Sovereign Power, for it can Condemn to Death without Appeal even the Polish Gentry, if they commit any Crime within its Territories and Jurisdiction.

Why he can raise no Forces without Consent of the Diet. The King can raise no Troops at his own Charges without Consent of the Diet, and this for fear that he should strengthen himself, and Intrench upon their Liberties. Nevertheless [Page 24] Ʋladislaus VII. Levied some with the Portion of his Queen Mary Ludovica, but the Senate so Murmur'd, that he was soon oblig'd to Disband them. The King cannot on any Account whatever go out of the Kingdom, without Consent of the Diet; for, Your GRACE may observe that King Henry of Valois was fain to steal out of the Kingdom when he went into France; Sigismund III. after the Death of his Father John King of Sueden, was forc'd to call a Diet at Warsaw in the Month of May 1592. to obtain Con­sent to return into Sueden to take Possession of his Hereditary Kingdom; and that Lewis King of Hungary, who was chosen King of Poland in the Year 1370, having a mind to return to his Native Kingdom, desired leave of the Senate, and was oblig'd to Augment their Privileges to obtain it.

His Legiti­mate Issue greatly Re­spected. The King's Children are more than ordi­narily respected, though at the same time every private Gentleman thinks himself as great as they by the Law, and to have as law­ful a Right to the Crown, yet are they ne­vertheless always treated as Princes of the Blood Royal. His Eldest Son has the Title of Prince of Poland, and the others barely that of Princes, adding withal their Chri­stian Names, as Prince Alexander, and Prince Constantin of Poland. The Kings Eldest Daughter is call'd the Princess of Poland, and the others only Princesses, adding thereto their Names, as Princess Mary of Poland. But it must be understood, that when the King their Father dies, and a new King of another or the same Family succeeds, and [Page 25] has Children, then do they lose the Titles of Princes and Princesses of Poland, and take only the Names of their Families or Estates, such as Prince Sobieski, Princess Czartoriski; yet however the Senate always look upon themselves oblig'd to provide for them, to give them Pensions, and to Match them equal to their Dignity and Birth, which has ever hitherto been duly observ'd▪ Nay, the Poles have all along shew'd such Esteem and Affe­ction to the Royal Family, that although they have not allow'd them any Hereditary Right to the Crown by Law, yet have they always Elected one of them King, where there was any surviving: For I find from the time of their Prince Piastus, even down to that of the Election of the late King John Sobieski, which is from the Year 830. to the Year 1674, the Crown has always continued in the same Family in a direct Line, as your GRACE may observe in the First Volume of my Account of Poland. They have also not confin'd this Affection of theirs to the Kings Sons only, but have likewise extended it towards their Daughters, and even their Widows, as may be seen at large in their Histories, where Your GRACE will find what strict Regard the Poles had to the Royal Race, in the Election of the Princess Hedwigis, whom they waited for with great Patience, though all the while they suffer'd extreamly by the Insults of the Duke of Masovia, who pretended a Right to the Crown, as being a Relation to Casimir the Great.

[Page 26] His Illegi­timate as much slighted. The King's Natural Sons are extreamly undervalu'd, and are hardly look'd upon to be Common Gentlemen; for none of the Gentry care to keep Company with them: Nay, one of the Late King's is a Clerk in the Salt Custom-House at Thorn, a City in Prus­sia, where his Place is not worth him above Thirty Pounds per Annum. All over the Kingdom they usually have a very mean Opi­nion of Illegitimate Children, though Nature endows them generally with as many Perfecti­ons, and with as good Qualities, as she does the Lawfully Begotten.

Means to continue the Crown in one Fa­mily. The only way for a King of Poland to con­tinue the Crown in his Family, is to be War­like; to enlarge his Dominions; to gain the Love and Affections of his People by his own Merits, and by the Favour of the Clergy; to send his Children early to the Wars to get Credit and Reputation in the Army; to spend Liberally all his Revenues, and to die in Debt, to the end that the Poles may be en­clin'd to Elect his Son, to enable him to pay what his Father ow'd. But all this while he must never think to encroach on the Privi­leges of the Nation, nor endeavour by any means to render the Crown Hereditary; for whenever the Poles begin to smell out any such private Design, they are presently apt to stir up Seditious Tumults, which would prove very Pernicious to all the Posterity of that King, as the ill Success the Late King's Sons have had sufficiently demonstrates.

Why the K. of Poland can't imi­tate him of Denmark. It is altogether impossible for a King of Po­land, in Imitation of the King of Denmark, to reduce his Subjects under an Arbitrary [Page 27] Power; for the State of Denmark was quite different then from what that of Poland is now. In Denmark the King, Clergy, and Commonalty were under the Rule and Go­vernment of the Gentry, so that it was the Interest of the Clergy and Commonalty to side with the King, to abate and depress the excessive Power and Privileges of the Nobi­lity; which they soon effected, by being Re­solute and more in Number. But in Poland it is quite otherwise; for there the Clergy and Gentry have a common Interest, to keep the King and People in Subjection. The Cler­gy have great Privileges, and are very Rich. The Bishops for the most part are Princes or Dukes; they are all Senators, and sit in the Diet before all the Temporal Lords; so that by the great Authority and Veneration which they have procur'd to themselves from the sla­vish People, they can hinder them from making any Insurrection; and by the Ar­bitrary and Free Power which they and the Gentry have hitherto maintain'd, to Elect whom they pleas'd for King, they will always keep him in such a Dependence for the sake of his Children, that he shall hardly ever be able to effect any Design upon their Prerogatives. Nay, providing he had found any Opportu­nity to compass such a dangerous Enterprize, yet would it not consist with Prudence either to declare or Attempt it, for fear of Incurring the Hatred and Displeasure of the People, which would not only tend to his own Ruin; but likewise Obstruct the Election of any of his Family to the Throne after his Death; so that the surest way for a King of Poland to [Page 28] continue the Crown in his Family, is never to attempt any Innovation.

Not Unhap­py because he cannot secure the Succession to his Family. I would not however think the Kings of Poland Unfortunate, in not being able to as­sure the Succession of the Throne to their Children, since they are thereby compell'd, as it were, by a lucky Necessity, to breed them up to all Royal Virtues, and this to the end that it may render them more Accom­plish'd, and Worthy to be Elected: For where they are satisfied that the Crown is not due to their Blood, but to their Merits, what will either the Father or Sons omit, to obtain it by the most Glorious Means?

My LORD,

Crown and Court. Of­ficers. I have hitherto presented Your GRACE with what relates to the Form of Government in Poland, and to the King's Power and Re­venues, I would now give a particular Ac­count of the King's Court, were it not like to that of other Princes, as to Splendor and Number of Officers: For, besides the Great Crown-Officers, as the two Great and Little Marshals; as many Chancellors, and Vice-Chancellors; two Generals, and two Great and Little Treasurers: The King has his Lord-Chamberlain; his Court-Marshal, or Lord Steward; his Master of the Horse; his Secretaries of State; his Standard-Bearer; Chief Huntsman; his Gentlemen of the Body, answerable to our Lords of the Bed-Chamber; his Physicians, Chaplains, Pensioners, Cup-Bearers, Sewers, Carvers, Musicians, and Guards.

[Page 29] Gentlemen. Pensioners. The Gentlemen Pensioners always attend the King on Horseback; this Body of Gen­try consists of the Noblest Youth of the King­dom, whereof many have Court and State-Employments, and are all subject to the Ju­risdiction of the Court-Marshal. There are some of these that attend his Majesty on Foot, but in long Journeys they are always carried in Waggons. A set number of these keep Guard Day and Night about the King. When­ever the King goes in Public, these last March every way about him with long Battle-Axes on their Shoulders, and Sabres by their Sides, but still admitting the Senators and Chief Cour­tiers to March next him; yet when the Queen goes with the King, the Senators and other Persons of Quality are to walk before.

Horse-Guards. The King's Horse-Guards ought by the Constitutions to be either Poles, Lithuanians, or Natives of some of the Incorporated Pro­vinces; but however this Law has been dis­pens'd with, for the late King admitted both Germans and Hungarians amongst them. Their Number by the Law is not to exceed 1200, and their Chief Commander is to be subject to all the Four Marshals.

Court▪Of­ficers in Li­thuania, The King has the same Number of Court Officers in Lithuania as he has in Poland, the Lithuanians being as Ambitious to keep up the ancient Grandeur of their Great Duke, as the Poles are for that of their King.

And in se­veral Pro­vinces. The King has likewise the Nomination of some Court-Officers in several Provinces, as in Prussia, Masovia, and Russia, which had formerly distinct Princes of their own, and were afterwards United to the Kingdom of [Page 30] Poland, so that the King has the Nomination of as many Court-Officers as any Prince in Europe, but most of them are rather Honorary than Beneficial; yet the Gentry always make great Interest to get into them; Precedence, of which they are Ambitious, being Regula­ted according to the Nature and Dignity of the Employment.

Chief Of­ficers of Queen's Court. As for the Queen's Court, it consists of about Thirty Officers, the Chief where­of are her Marshal and Chancellor. Their Business is to Preside over Domestic Affairs in the Queen's Court. Her Marshal or Steward, is to carry the Staff before her; and her Chan­cellor or Secretary, to Write, Sign, Re­ceive, and Answer all her Letters. There is her Treasurer, who Manages her Revenue; her Master of the Horse, Cup-Bearers, Car­vers, Sewers, Clerk of the Kitchen, &c. For Women Servants, she has her Ladies, Maids of Honour, Dressers, &c. When she goes in Public, she is always attended by a great number of her own Sex.

Principal Officers of Primate's Court. It may not be here amiss to add some­thing of the Court of the Inter-Rex, or Pri­mate, and so I will conclude. While the Archbishop of Gnesna has the Administration of the Government, he has much the same Officers with the King; but when he has laid down that Authority, his Officers are his Marshal, spoken of before; his Chancellor, who Presides in his Courts of Justice; his Al­moner, Master of Requests, Cross-Bearer, Steward, Treasurer, Chaplains, Library-Keeper, Clerk of the Kitchin, &c.

[Page 31] What pecu­liar to him. This Archbishop alone, as he is the Chief Senator of Poland, has Drums beating, and Trumpets sounding, both within and with­out Doors, before he sits down to Table. He also, by his Prerogative, is not to wait for the King's Commands when he should Visit him, but may go when and as often as he pleases.

Before, My Lord, I put an end to this Letter, permit me to take notice to Your GRACE, that the King of Poland does not Name his Privy-Counsellors, but all Senators are Counsellors of Course; for all of that Dignity that are about the Place where the King Resides, have a Right to sit at the Council-Board. For fear notwithstanding that there should not be always Senators suf­ficient for that purpose at Court, the Senate al­ways depute four of their Members to attend the King's Person by turns, and that not on­ly to give him Advice, but likewise to In­spect into his Conduct, and to prevent him from Acting contrary to the Laws: For the King and Council are accountable to the Diet for any Mismanagement in the Govern­ment. In short, the Genius of the Polish Nation, and the whole Frame of their Con­stitution, is entirely bent to Curb the King's Power, and to secure their Laws, and Pre­rogatives, against the Incroaching Factions of Foreign Princes, or of their own Court-Party.

I might here, My Lord, add a great many more Particulars relating to the King of Poland; but this is what I thought most ma­terial [Page 32] to be mention'd; and what I cou'd on­ly learn in so small a Time as I have lived in that Country.

I beg your GRACE's Pardon for tiring your Patience with so long and imperfect an Account, and desire, my Lord, you wou'd receive this, at least, as a Testimony of my good Will of satisfying your Curiosity, and of owning your many Favours to,

LETTER II.
To His Grace, HENRY, Duke of Norfolk, Earl- Marshal of Eng­land.

YOUR Grace's High Birth and Sta­tion in our Government, together with Your Primary Right of Suffrage in our House of Lords, entitle you in a Super­lative manner to the Patronage of this Letter. Wherefore I was glad, to meet with an occasion so favourable to pay my Duty to Your GRACE; and I could heartily wish it had been on a Subject that I were more Master of, than in an Account of a Country which I never saw; yet that you may give some Credit to the Truth of my Relation, I dare humbly assure you that I have mention'd nothing therein but what I either had out of Dr. Connor's Memoirs, learn'd from his own Mouth, or drew from such Books as both the Doctor and Other [Page 34] Persons of Credit have own'd to be Authentic, and most Correct.

My LORD,

The Senate and its Of­fice. The Senate of Poland is an Order of No­bles between the King and common Gentry, establish'd to rule and govern according to Law, and to observe the Conduct of the King: And moreover, they are to apply themselves to study the publick Good, and the Preservation of the Privileges of the Peo­ple. It consists at present of a far greater Number of Persons than formerly.

Senators, by whom made; and their Oath. It is the King that makes every Senator; but who being once so made, is to continue his Office for Life. At the Time of his Cre­ation, he is oblig'd to take a solemn Oath, to conserve inviolable, the Rights and Li­berties of the Republic; so that if the King himself had a mind to extend his Power and Authority, beyond the Limits prescrib'd him by the Laws, every Senator's Oath alone would oblige him to acquaint his Majesty with due Respect of his Duty and Obligation. Nay, every Nuncio in the grand Diet, as­sumes this Liberty: For, in that Place, di­cunt quae sentiunt, & sentiunt quae velint; as may appear by an insolent Affront put upon the late King John Sobieski, who having been call'd Tyrant, Nero, and many other opprobrious Names, by some of the Deputies, and not being able to bear it, he started up and threatned them, laying his Hand on his Sword, That had he been the great General still, he would have done something; whereat one of them rising likewise, and clapping his [Page 35] Hand to his Sword, reply'd, and that Sword would have done something too. Another Pas­sage I have read, of Lewis King of Hungary and Poland; who having been basely abus'd in the Diet, stood up and cry'd, Si non essem Rex—whereto the Orator briskly reply'd, Si non fuisses Rex.—

Four to at­tend the King, and wherefore. These Senators are likewise bound to see that nothing be done against their Privi­leges; and therefore four of them are al­ways deputed to attend the King with their Advice: Besides these four, who are ever actually the King's Counsel; any of the others in like manner, have a Right to assist at the Council-Board if they think fit.

Senators not suffer'd to travel, The Presence of these Senators is look'd up­on to be so absolutely necessary for the Good of the Kingdom, that not one of 'em can tra­vel upon whatsoever Account, without Leave of the Republic. ^*This Custom is ta­ken from the Romans who not only forbid the Senators, but also their Sons to go be­yond the Verge of Italy.

This Title not bestow'd by its self. This Title of Senator the King cannot be­stow by it self, but it is always annex'd to one of the four Dignitys of

• Bishops,
• Castellans, or
• Palatins,
• The Ten Crown-Officers;

all which the King names; whereof Palatins are Lord-Lieutenants of Provinces; Castel­lans are Governours, who have not their Names from Castles, as the Word might [Page 36] reasonably import, but from commanding a Portion of a Province in Time of War.

The ten Crown-Officers are the Marshals, Chancellors, and Treasurers of the King­dom; and Bishops preside over their several Diocesses with an Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction.

When any one is nam'd a Bishop, Palatin, Castellan, or any of the ten Officers of the Crown, he is immediately a Senator without more ado.

Senator's Office. Their Business is to serve faithfully the King and Republick in the Senate; at home to administer Justice by Commission or otherwise, and abroad, with Consent of the Diet, to exercise foreign Ministrys, &c.

Extreamly prize their Dignities. These Senators of Poland value their Dig­nities so highly, that they despise almost all other Titles of Honour whatever, and there­fore when Sigismund I. went to Vienna, and the Emperour offer'd the Title of Princes of the Empire to the several Senators that came along with him, they absolutely refus'd 'em; giving for Reason, That being born Gentlemen of Poland, and thereby having a Right to treat either of Peace or War with their King; they believ'd it an Injury to their Dignity to have a Prince of the Empire thought superiour.

Their Di­vision and Subdivisi­on. This Senate consists either of Ecclesiastical or Secular Members. The Ecclesiastical are either Archbishops or Bishops; and are the chief Members of the Senate. Their Number at present is but sixteen. Three of these Bishopricks are now in the Enemies Hands, though they nevertheless have titular Bishops, viz. Smolensko and Ki­ovia possess'd by the Moscovites, and Cami­niec [Page 37] enjoy'd by the Turks: So that there re­main but thirteen Bishopricks actually in the King's Dominions, of which but two are Arch­bishopricks, viz. those of Gnesna and Leopol. When any of the aforesaid three Bishopricks are vacant, there are always those ready that will beg their Titles meerly to have the Ho­nour to sit as Senators.

The several Diocesses belonging to all Diocesses of Poland.these Bishopricks, are,

• Gnesna and
• Leopol.

• Cracow,
• Cujavia and Pomerania,
• Vilna,
• Posnan,
• Plocksko or Plosko,
• Varmia
• Luceoria or Lucko,
• Premislia or Premislaw,
• Samegitia,
• Culm,
• Chelm,
• Kiovia,
• Caminiec, and
• Smolensko.

• Cracow,
• Ʋladislaw,
  Peculiar Jurisdicti­ons of the two Arch­bishops.
• Posnan,
• Plosko,
• Vilna,
• Varmia,
• Samogitia, and
• Culm.

• [Page 38]Chelm,
• Caminiec,
• Luceoria,
• Premislia, and
• Kiovia.

I The Archbishop of Gnesna is not only Ecclesia­stical Sena­tor, his Power and State.Chief of the Bishops, but also of all the other Senators of Poland. He is Primate of the King­dom; a Title given him by the Council of Constance; and moreover, stiles himself the Pope's Legate Born, by a Grant of the Coun­cil of Lateran. All Ecclesiastical Affairs that have been determin'd in the Archbishop of Leopol's, or any of the other Bishops Courts, may be revers'd, or confirm'd in an Appeal to him. His Power and Authority is exceed­ing great, and even next to the King's: It is Death to draw a Sword in his Presence, or to quarrel in any manner whatsoever before him: When he goes to the King, or the Di­et, there is always a golden Cross carry'd be­fore him; and when he sits, his Chaplain holds it behind his Chair. He has his Mar­shal, who is a Castellan and Senator of the Kingdom. This Person on Horse-back, car­ries a Staff before his Coach, but salutes none with it except the King, when the Arch­bishop and he happen to meet. This Marshal has likewise the Honour to carry the like Staff before the King, where the other Mar­shals are absent. When the Archbishop comes to wait on the King, the great Cham­berlain, or some other great Officer, always receives him at the Stair-Foot, and the King afterwards comes out of his Chamber to meet [Page 39] him in the Anti-Chamber. He never pays any Visits out of Duty, but to the Pope's Nuncio, and to him only but once. He vi­sits no King's Ambassadors, tho' they visit him first.

His Power as Inter. Rex. After the King's Death he is the supream Regent of the Kingdom till a new one be chosen; during which Time, he may coin Money in his own Name, a Privilege granted him by Boleslaus the Chaste; but which never­theless has not been practis'd, no Money ha­ving ever been seen of his coining. The Re­venues also of the Crown belong to him in the Inter-Regnum; he convokes the Diet, and dissolves it at Pleasure; and in case there happens any thing extraordinary, the Go­vernment assigns him several Senators for his Assistants. In short, he is Tantum non Rex. He only can proclaim the King when elected, and crown him afterwards (except where he dies, as in the following Case) which is so very considerable, that he is look'd upon, by the Ambassadors and Envoys of the Candi­dates, as the only Person upon whom the Suc­cess of their Negotiation depends▪ and therefore all of them do their utmost to make him their Friend.

Hereupon I must acquaint your Grace with a Passage in the Election of the late King of Poland, John III. in the Year 1674. when one Czartoreski was Archbishop of Gnesna; who being entirely in the Austrian Interest, and a great Friend to the Chancellor Patz, and by consequence, both an Enemy to the French and John Sobieski's Party, could by no means be brought to proclaim him; but as it hap­pened, [Page 40] he dy'd three Days before the Electi­on, and that Power devolv'd to Trzebicki, Bi­shop of Cracow, who being altogether for the Grand Marshal, forthwith proclaim'd him with Joy.

Why en­trusted so much. The Reason why the Republic entrusts this great Authority to a Clergy-Man, is for Fear, that if it were bestow'd on a secular Senator, he might make use of it to advance himself to the Throne.

His See. This Archbishop's See is at Lowitz, a City in the Palatinate of Rava, in Lower Poland. He is born a Canon of the Church of Plosko.

II The second Ecclesiastical senator is the Archbishop of Leopol, the capital City of Red-Russia, so nam'd from a sovereign Duke of that Province, call'd Leo, who was subdu'd by a Castellan of Cracow, in the Year 1279, and under the Reign of Lescus VI.

Two other Bishops in Leopol. This City is the Seat of three Bishops, viz. the Roman-Catholick Archbishop, the Arme­nian-Catholick Archbishop, and a Russian Greek Schismatic Bishop. These two Arch­bishops have the same Belief and Religion, only the Armenian have some particular Ce­remonies wherein they differ, and the Wo­men are separated from the Men in the Church.

Those of the Greek Per­swasion. The Russian or Greek-Schismatic Bishops cannot Marry, because they must of necessi­ty be chosen out of the Order of Fryars of St. Basil, who all make a Vow of Chastity. Nevertheless the Parish Priests are not oblig'd to live in Coelibacy, that is, if they were ad­mitted into Orders after their Marriage, for [Page 41] they cannot be constrain'd to leave their Wives; but however, when their Wives dye, they cannot Marry again, unless they have a mind to relinquish their Priest­hood.

Their Te­nets, Cere­monies, and Ornoments. Their Liturgy is in the Russian Language, being as the Polish, a Dialect of the Sclavo­vian. Their Tenets are, that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father by the Son, and that the Pope is not Head of all the Church, but only the first of the two Patri­archs, whereof theirs of Constantinople is the se­cond, and independent of the first. In other Articles of Belief they agree with the Roman Church: Their Ceremonies and Or­naments differ from the Roman and Armeni­an. They pray standing, tho' they make fre­quent Genuflexions: They receive the Com­munion in both Kinds after this manner: The Priest consecrates several little Pieces of Bread made with Leaven; after which he re­ceives himself, and then breaks the Bread in divers little Pieces; which done, he puts 'em into the Chalice with the consecrated Wine, and then with a little Silver Spoon, made for that purpose, he communicates to the People, who all stand, with their Arms across upon their Breasts, when they receive. This done, the Communicants follow the Priest thrice about the Altar with folded Arms, who all the while advises and charges them to make good Cheer for seven Days to­gether, and to fast the next seven Days after that. The Russians likewise make their Chil­dren communicate, tho' never so young. When they have all taken the Sacramen [...], [Page 42] the Priest consumes the rest at his Plea­sure.

This Digression being curious, I thought it not amiss to insert it, but now I must pro­ceed to

III The Third Ecclesiastical Senator, who is the Bishop of Cracow, the capital City of the Kingdom, lying in High or Little Po­land.

His Bishop­rick and Power. This was first an Archbishoprick, esta­blish'd by Miecislaus I. in the Year 964. im­mediately after he had embrac'd the Christian Faith, but was afterwards lost by means of one Lampert, who being made Archbishop, and valuing himself too much on his Birth, neglected to send to Rome for Consecration, whereupon the Pope order'd it for the future to remain only a Bishoprick. What is re­markable in this Bishoprick is, that the Archbishoprick and that have frequently been held by the same Person. This Bishop stiles himself Duke of Severia, in which all the People are subject both to his Ecclesiasti­cal and Temporal Jurisdiction.

His Resi­dence, His usual Residence is either at Bozentium, a small Town at the Bottom of the Bald Mountain, or else at Kielsk in the same Pala­tinate of Sendomir. He has in his Diocess 1018. Churches, of which thirteen are Col­legiate.

and Precedence. His Seat in the Senate is on the left Hand of the King, and next to the Archbishop of Leopol, tho it ought to be on the right, he being the first Bishop in the Kingdom.

This Bishoprick was formerly join'd to Gnesna. An Address to this Bishop is com­monly [Page 43] Admodum Reverendo, when others have only Reverendo.

The fourth Ecclesiastical Senator is the His See.Bi­shop IV of Cujavia and Pomerania; the See of whose Bishoprick is at Ʋladislaw, upon the Vistula, four Leagues below Thorn in Low Po­land.

Precedence and Autho­rity. His Seat in the Senate is on the right hand of the Archbishop of Gnesna, whose Place he officiates in an Inter-regnum, as your GRACE may have observed before. His Bishoprick was formerly call'd the Bishoprick of Crus­wick, because he had a Cathedral Church there; but that being translated to Ʋladislaw, at this Day it has sometimes the Name of the Bishoprick of Ʋladislaw.

Several Places of Residence. His usual Residence, when in Poland, is ei­ther at Wolboria, in the Palatinate of Lanschet, or Lagovia, in the Palatinate of Sendomir; and when in Prussia, is chiefly at Sobkovia.

The fifth Ecclesiastial Senator is the Bishop V of Vilna, the capital City of the great Dutchy of Lithuania, on the River Vilia, which dis­charges it self into the River Niemen, below Cowno.

His Diocess. His Diocess extends it self thro' Lithuania, and White-Russia, even to the Borders of Moscovy.

The sixth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop VI of Posnan, a City in Low or Great- Poland, situate on the River Varta: There are the Tombs of several Kings of Poland in the Ca­thedral Church of this City, all which are very Magnificent.

His Diocess. His Diocess not only extends thro' the Province of Posnania, but also thro' some part [Page 44] of the Palatinate of Masovia, as War­saw, &c.

VII The seventh Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Plosko, a small City in Masovia, on the River Vistula, five Leagues above Ʋladislaw.

His Juris­diction, He has the same Jurisdiction over the Ter­ritory of Pultausk, as the Bishop of Cracow has over the Dutchy of Severia, and wherein there lies no Appeal to the King.

and See. His Episcopal See is at Pultausk in Masovia, upon the River Narew, which runs into the Bug, two Leagues below.

VIII The eighth Eclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Varmia, in Royal Prussia, which Bishoprick is so divided, that the Bishop has two Parts, and the Chapter the third, and in which they have His Juris­diction,a free Jurisdiction over the Gentry, exempt from the Regal Power.

and See. His Episcopal See is at Frawenberg, a little Town near Frisc-haff.

IX The ninth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bi­shop of Luceoria or Lucko, which is the capi­tal City of High- Volhynia.

His Diocess. His Diocess contains part of the Palatinate of Masovia, Podlachia, and Briescia or Pole­sia, in the great Dutchy of Lithuania.

X The tenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bi­shop of Premislia or Premislaw, a City of Red-Russia, on the River San, six Leagues above Jeroslaw, and twelve from Leopol.

Here is a Greek Bi­shop. In this City there is a Greek-schismatic Bi­shop▪ It was here that a Canon of the Ca­thedral Church, nam'd Orikowski, in the Be­ginning of Lutheranism, maintain'd the first, that Priests might Marry, and who Marry'd [Page 45] afterwards himself, in the Year 1549. under the Reign of Sigismund II.

The eleventh Ecclesiastical Senator is the XI Bishop of Samogitia, who obtain'd from Pope Likewise Bishop of Curland. Ʋrban VIII. that he might likewise be Bishop of Curland.

yet has no See. This Bishop has no particular See appoint­ed, but sometimes resides at Midnich, one of the chief Towns in that Province.

The twelfth Ecclesiastical Senator is the XII Bishop of Culm, a City of Royal Prussia, on the River Vistula, six Leagues above the City of Thorn.

His Prece­dence, This Bishop formerly preceded the Bi­shop of Varmia.

and See. His Episcopal See is at Lubavia, as like­wise at Stargardie, which the Germans call Althousen.

The thirteenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the XIII Bishop of Chelm in Red-Russia: There is be­sides in this City, a Greek-Schismatick Bi­shop.

His See translated, and where­fore. The Bishop of Chelm has for some time translated his See to Kranostaw, a Town in the same Palatinate of Chelm, built upon a great Lake, thro which runs the River Nie­per: This Translation was occasion'd by the frequent Irruptions of the Tartars and Co­saks, and who have altogether destroy'd the City of Chelm.

The fourteenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the XIV Bishop of Kiovia, capital City of Low- Volhy­nia, Honorary.and of all Ʋkraina.

A Greek Bishop formerly Primate of Moscovy. Here is moreover, a Greek-Schismatick Bishop, formerly Primate of all Russia or Moscovy: The Inhabitants of this City are [Page 46] all of the Greek Perswasion, and at present are subject to the Great Czar.

XV The fifteenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Honorary.Bishop of Caminiec, Capital of Podolia, which is now under the Turk.

XVI The sixteenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Honorary.Bishop of Smolensko, upon the River Vistula, Capital of the Dutchy of the same Name. This Dutchy was formerly subject to Lithua­nia, but now is also subdu'd by the Mosco­vite.

Each Bi­shop has a Kind of lit­tle Court. Every one of these Bishops has a great Re­tinue, and a kind of little Court, having se­veral Ecclesiastical and Secular Officers about him. The greatest Part of them also have Suffragans, because they believe themselves chiefly made Bishops to have a Right to sit in the Senate, and not to be troubled with the Duties of their Office, and therefore allow these a small Pension to perform all Episco­pal Functions for them.

Guagnini says, that in the Year 1506. there was a great Contest in the Diet held at Lublin, between the Ecclesiastical and Lay- Senators; for the latter pretended to have a Right to sit next the King on his left Hand; but which at length the Bishops over-power'd them in, and thereby retain'd their ancient Privilege.

Their Pre­cedence in the Diet, and large Revenues. Krzistanowic, in his State of Poland says, that such was the Piety of the Poles, that im­mediately after they became Christians, they prefer'd their Clergy to their Laity, and al­low'd them many Noble Immunities and Pri­vileges which they enjoy to this Day.

[Page 47] Most of the Bishops have very large Reve­nues, wherewith they may not only live splen­didly and comfortably themselves, but also be assistant to the inferiour Clergy, and cha­ritable to the Poor.

Religion in Poland and Lithuania. Here I must beg leave to give Your GRACE, by way of Digression, some Ac­count of the present State of Religion, both in Poland and Lithnania; together with a few historical Circumstances relating as well to modern, as more remote Times, and where­in I shall all along endeavour to be as concise and comprehensive as the several Particulars I have to go thro' will admit.

Conversion and several Perswasions of the Poles. Your GRACE may first be inform'd, that the Poles became Christians under the Reign of Miecislaus I. in the Year 964. as may be observ'd in the Life of that King. The first Tenets they embrac'd, were those of the Church of Rome: But how­ever, the Russians entertain'd the Greek Per­swasion, which they continue in many Places of that Province to this Day: They are ut­terly averse to the Roman Catholick Religion, and term its Professors, by way of Contempt, Latins, their Service being in that Language.

There are two Sorts of Greek Churches in this Kingdom; the Schismaticks and the Ʋni­ats; whereof the latter differ only from the Roman Catholicks, in that their Devotion is all in the Greek Language. The Priests of both these Churches are call'd Popi, the Word Pop in Polish signifying a Priest.

Formerly Poland was over-run with Hus­sites, Picards, Anabaptists, Arrians, Trithe­ists, [Page 48] Photians, Ebionites, Nestorians, and So­cinians: But the former of these have been Socinians expell'd, 1658.some time since extirpated, and the Socinians were first ejected by John Casimir, obliging them, by his Edict, to quit the Kingdom im­mediately, and allowing them three Years to dispose of their Effects. These three Years were afterwards reduc'd to two by a follow­ing Edict: But notwithstanding these positive Laws, several of this Sect lurking about in the Kingdom, from time to time, and some being protected by the Favour of the Gentry, the late King John Sobieski publish'd a new 1673.Edict more severe than either of the former, whereby the Socinians were forthwith driven out of the Kingdom.

Lutherans, and Calvinists. I must not omit to acquaint Your GRACE, that there are abundance of Lutherans and Calvinists in this Kingdom, and that chiefly in the Province of Regal- Prussia, who have all Liberty of Conscience allow'd them, and whom the King is oblig'd to tolerate and protect by his Coronation-Oath. The Lu­therans are call'd by the Poles, Sassowiez (Sax­ons) because Luther liv'd and taught in Saxo­ny▪ and the Calvinists, Zborocoi (Conventi­clers) from the Polish Word Zbor, signify­ing an Ʋnlawful Meeting. I should have ob­serv'd, that the Prussians became Christians after the Poles. The reason of the Prussians so readily embracing the Lutheran Doctrin, Cromerus attributes to their being chiefly Ger­mans, or to their reading the Books of that Nation. The first Polish Nobleman converted to Calvinism, was Nicholas Radzivil, under the Reign of Sigismundus Augustus, who re­ceiv'd [Page 49] all that Sect into his Protection at his House at Viena, where they had their Ser­vice in the Polish Language; but this Family is at present extinct, the last Person of it be­ing a Daughter, and Marry'd to the Elector of Brandenburgh's Son; yet nevertheless, ma­ny of this Sect still remain in Poland.

and other Religions in Poland. There are Besides, Armenians, Jews, and Tartars in this Kingdom, who all enjoy their different Perswasions and Ceremonies. As for the Armenians, they inhabit chiefly in cer­tain Towns of Russia and Podolia, and have their peculiar Prelates, Abbots, and Priests: Their Service is always exercis'd in their own Language: These, as in other Coun­tries, acknowledge the Supremacy of the See of Rome. The Jews are every where to be found in Poland, and enjoy their Religion, and other Privileges, without Interruption; only they are restrain'd from trading within twelve Leagues of Warsaw, by the Constitutions. Their Number is so great, that Mr. Patric Ogleby, who has travell'd all over these Coun­tries, affirms, that there are above two Mil­lions of them in this Kingdom, and that they are so privileg'd, that all this vast Body pays not above a hundred and twenty thousand Tinfes or Florens a Year to the States; which amounts to no more than twenty thousand Dollars. In the great Dutchy of Listhuania, there are moreover about thirty thousand Tartars, with Liberty of the Turkish Religion. They have been there near six hundred Years, and for the continuance of their Privileges, they are oblig'd to send twelve hundred Men Yearly to the Wars against the Turks and Tar­tars. [Page 50] There are likewise a great many Ido­laters on the Frontiers of this Kingdom, who still retain their ancient Superstitions, whereof one is, that whenever any one dies, and tho it be a Year or more afterwards, that another dies likewise; they presently go and dig up the first Body, and cut off its Head, thereby to prevent, as they say, the Death of any more of their Family.

The Roman Catholick prevails, Notwithstanding Poland admits of all these Religions, yet that which prevails most, is the Roman Catholick, which the Poles have continued stedfast in for above 700. Years. They are so zealous in the maintaining of this Faith, that they have a Custom to draw their Swords at the reading of the Gospel at Mass, and this to testify their Readiness to defend it: Also they are so bigotted to their Perswasion, that they formerly would not inter-marry with Hereticks, as they call them; contract any Alliance with them, ac­cept of their Assistance in War, nor receive any of their Scepters offer'd them: An Ex­ample of which last, we have in the Person of Jugello or Ʋladislaus V. who rejected the Crown of Bohemia, meerly because the Hus­sites had then over-run that Kingdom. Also in John Casimir's Reign, the Swedes were al­together ejected Poland, on Account of their being Lutherans.

and always prefer'd. The Poles being thus Zealous for the Ro­man Catholick Religion, they will admit none into their Senate, Diet, or Courts of Ju­dicature (except in those of Prussia) but of that Perswasion. Also Bishops always pre­side in the Assembly of the States, to the end [Page 51] that nothing may be transacted there in Pre­judice of that Faith. The lesser Clergy like­wise, selected out of the several Colleges and Chapters of the Kingdom, are appointed to have Seats in the Tribunals and other Courts of Justice for the same Reason. In like man­ner, the great Officers of the Crown are of­tentimes Bishops, and the great Secretary of the whole Kingdom has always been an Ec­clesiastick.

Privileges of Regular Clergy. The Regular Clergy in Poland, are general­ly more esteem'd than the Secular; for they can perform all the Offices of Parish Priests, without having Permission from the Bishops: And Fryar- Mendicants are allow'd to enter the most private Part of any House without so much as knocking at the Door. There are all Sorts of Religious Orders in Poland, except those of Carthusians and Minims.

Their disso­lute Lives. These Regular Clergy are generally very rich, but not less dissolute and immodest; for they frequently go into the Cellars to drink, being the Tipling Places of this Country, and sometimes you shall see many of them so drunk in the Streets, that they are scarce able to go upon their Legs, and this without either their Superiours or the Peoples taking any Notice of them.

Fasts, how observ'd in Poland. On Fast-Days these Religious Persons, and all others of the Poles, abstain from Milk-Meats, Eggs, Flesh, and Boyl'd Fish, a-Nights only: For providing they keep to these Rules at that time, they may Eat and Drink what they please all the rest of the Day, only Frydays and Saturdays they forbear Butter, Cheese, Milk, and Eggs, all the Day [Page 52] long. They cannot be enclin'd to eat But­ter or Cheese on Fast-Days, tho they have Permission from the Church; for when Car­dinal Radziouski once obtain'd them that Li­berty, from the See of Rome; they absolute­ly refus'd it, saying, that his Holiness was a Heretick. This rigid Custom they have ob­serv'd ever since the Pope made them once fast for a hundred Years together for some enormous Crime; and which it may be, they do not think yet sufficiently expiated. They also are so obstinate in their abstaining from Flesh, that they will not eat any, tho they be sick and advis'd thereto by their Doctors, and permitted by their Priests.

Manners of the Secular Clergy. As for the Secular Inferiour Clergy, they are either Collegiate or Parochial, and both are much after the same Nature as with us. The Canons are never almost present at the Office, for they give the poor Scholars two Pence a Day to say their Hours for them in the Quoir. The Parsons generally neglect their Cures, by leaving most of their Duty to the Monks or Vicars and Curates. They al­ways sing Part of the Service in the Polish Language, and that especially in the Parish-Churches at High- Mass.

The Rosary is also daily repeated in the Dominicans Chappels, in which the Men are seated, and join in the Repetition, on one Side, and the Women on the other; the former alone singing the Ave Maria, and the latter the Sancta Maria.

Plurality of Benefices is here tolerated; for there are some of these secular Clergy who have not only two Canonships, but also [Page 53] two Parsonages: But there are none that take any Care to perform the Duties of their Function. The Bishops themselves are so careless of their Episcopal Functions, that they care not to correct the inferiour Clergy when they do amiss.

The Poles Behaviour at Church. At Divine Service the Poles always seem very devout, and bestow considerable Gifts upon their Churches; but they are neither liberal to the Poor, nor careful of their sick Servants. They pray always aloud in the Church, and at the Elevation of the Host at Mass, they cuff themselves, and knock their Heads against the Pavement, or the Bench whereon they sit, with so great Violence, that it commonly makes a great deal of Noise, and may be heard at a considerable Distance. The Women commonly have their Prayer-Books, with a Chaplet of Beads in the Middle of them. In Winter the Ladies of Quality, and even some Men, have furr'd Bags brought to Church for them, to preserve their Feet from the excessive Cold: They al­so wear little furr'd Mantles on their Shoul­ders for the same purpose.

Their Churches. I shall now only further observe to Your GRACE, as to this Subject of Religion, that the Churches in Poland are extreamly fine, and well adorn'd; as also that the Jesu­ites of Leopol have a Chasuble or Cope, which the Priests wear at Mass, cover'd so thick with Pearls, that, by reason of its Heavi­ness, it is of little or no Use.

To return to the Senate, from whence I have made this long, but I hope, pardonable Digression, I must acquaint Your GRACE, [Page 54] that excepting those already mention'd, and some of the ten Crown-Officers, who are often Ecclesiastick; the other Members thereof are all temporal, and

Division and Subdi­vision of Lay▪ Sena­tors. Amount to the Number of 128. when they are all Lay-Men, and may be subdivided in­to,

They are again to be divided into

• Great and
• Little

The Great are only,

32 Palatins,

• Cracow,
• Vilna and
• Troki,

1 Starosta.

The Little or Inferiour are in all 92. viz.

10 Crown-Officers, and

82 Castellans.

These remaining Castellans may be divi­ded into,

• Greater and
• Lesser.

The Greater are in Number 33.

The Lesser lying only in High- Poland, Masovia, and Russia; amount to 49. But of all these in their Order. And

[Page 55] Palatins, &c. with their Pre­cedence. First, Of the Palatins, whose Precedence, together with the intermixt Castellans, and one Starosta, is as follows.

1. Lay-Senator. The first of all the Lay- Senators is,

The Castellan of Cracovia in High- Poland.

Preferr'd, and where­fore. He takes Place of the Palatin▪ for having formerly withstood the Fury of the Enemy, where the Palatin run away, in a Battle 1130. fought by Boleslaus III. Or as ^*others say, because the then Palatin Scar bimir us rebell'd against Boleslaus; in Detestation of which Action, he was ordered for ever after to give Place to the Castellan.

The second Lay- Senator is, II

The Palatin of Cracovia.

The third Lay- Senator is, III

The Palatin of Posnania in Low- Poland.

The fourth Lay- Senator is, IV

The Palatin of Vilna in Lithuania.

The fifth Lay- Senator is, V

The Pabatin of Sendomir in High- Poland.

The sixth Lay- Senator is, VI

The Castellan of Vilna.

Preferr'd, for what Reasons. He is preferr'd before several Palatins, be­cause of some considerable Services he had done the Common-Wealth; or rather, as ^† Hartknoch says, from the Antiquity of his Creation; for when Jagello united Lithuania to Poland, he instituted the Palatins and Ca­stellans of Vilna and Troki, and order'd them to sit in Council, whereupon they have ever since taken Place of those that were created afterwards.

[Page 56] VII The seventh Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Kalisch in Low- Poland.

VIII The eighth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Troki in Lithuania.

IX The ninth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Siradia in Low- Poland.

X The tenth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Troki in Lithuania.

Preferr'd, and why. He is preferr'd to several Palatins for the same Reason with the Castellan of Vilna.

XI The eleventh Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Lencici or Lanschet in Low- Poland.

XII The twelfth Lay- Senator is,

The Starosta or Governour of Samo­gitia.

Wherefore preferr'd, and how chosen. He has Preference also over some Palatins: This Senator is chosen by the Nobility of his Province, and confirm'd by the King, and holds his Command for Life, unless he com­mit any very great Offence, in which Case he may be depriv'd of it, and degraded by the Diet.

XIII The thirteenth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Bresty, in the Territory of Cujavia in Low- Poland.

XIV The fourteenth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Kiovia in Low- Volhynia.

Honorary Palatinate. This Palatinate is only Honorary, the Moscovites having had Possession of it ever since the Cosacks surrendred it to them.

XV The fifteenth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Inowlocz in Low- Poland▪

XVI The sixteenth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Russia.

[Page 57] Why he has the Title of the Pro­vince. He has the Title of all the Country, tho there be several other Palatins in this great Province, his Jurisdiction being wholly con­find'd to that Palatinate, which formerly had the Name of Leopol.

The seventeenth Lay- Senator is, XVII

The Palatin of High Volhynia, or Luceo­ria.

The eighteenth Lay- Senator is, XVIII

The Palatin of High- Podolia (formerly of Caminiec.)

Honorary Palatinate. This Palatinate at present is only honora­ry, being wholly in Possession of the Turks.

The nineteenth Lay- Senator is, XIX

The Palatin of Smolensko.

Honorary Palatinate. This Palatinate is also Honorary, and in the Hands of the Moscovites, since the Year 1654.

The twentieth Lay- Senator is, XX

The Palatin of Lublin in High- Poland.

The twenty first Lay- Senator is, XXI

The Palatin of Losk or Polockz in Lithua­nia.

The twenty second Lay- Senator is, XXII

The Palatin of Belez or Belsko in Red- Russia.

The twenty third Lay- Senator is, XXIII

The Palatin of Novogrodeck in Lithuania. XXIV

The twenty fourth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Plosko or Plockzko in Low- Poland.

The twenty fifth Lay- Senator is, XXV

The Palatin of Witebsko or Vitepsko in Li­thuania.

The twenty sixth Lay- Senator is, XXVI

[Page 58] The Palatin of Masovia (formerly of Czirna, a Town in the same Province.)

XXVII The twenty seventh Lay▪ Senator is,

The Palatin of Podlachia or Bielsko, a District of that Province.

XXVIII The twenty eighth Lay▪ Senator is,

The Palatin of Rava in Low- Poland.

XXIX The twenty ninth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Briescia or Polesia in Li­thuania.

XXX The thirtieth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Culm in Regal- Prussia.

XXXI The thirty first Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Mscislaw or Msceislaw in Lithuania.

XXXII The thirty second Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Marienbourg in Regal- Prussia.

Formerly Seat of Teutonic Knights. The City of Marienbourg was formerly the Seat of the Teutonic Order, as appears by the Stalls or Seats yet to be seen in great Num­bers in the Chappel of the Castle.

XXXIII The thirty third Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Braclaw in Low- Podolia.

Honorary Palatinate. This Palatinate at present is only Honora­ry, being altogether ravag'd and dispeopled by the frequent Incursions of the Turks and Tartars.

XXXIV The thirty fourth Lay- Senator is,

The Palatin of Pomerania in Regal- Prus­sia.

Greatest Part Hono­rary. This Palatinate lies altogether in Royal Prussia, the greatest Part of it now being a Province belonging to Sueden and Bran­denbourg, tho' a small Portion of it yet re­mains to Poland.

[Page 59] The thirty fifth Lay- Senator is, XXXV

The Palatin of Minski or Minsch in Li­thuania.

The thirty sixth Lay- Senator is, XXXVI

The Palatin of Czernichovia or Czerni­kow, a Dutchy which formerly belong'd to Lithuania.

Honorary Palatinate. This Palatinate at present is only Honora­ry, having been for some time under the Czar of Moscovy.

Duty and Office of Palatins. Having thus describ'd the Order and Pre­cedence of the chief Senators, it would not be amiss to give Your GRACE some Account of the Duty of a Palatin, which is to lead the Troops of his Palatinate into the Field in a general Expedition, call'd by the Poles, Pos­polite Ruszenie: ^*But in time of Peace, the Power of all is not the same, for there are some Palatins in the great Dutchy of Lithua­nia, who even then govern by Martial Law. In Prussia also they proceed by the same Law, which they call Judicia Palatinalia; their ge­neral Office is to preside in the little Diet or Assembly of the Gentry of their Province; to regulate the Prizes of Merchandizes, and to take Care of Weights and Measures; as also to punish or protect the Jews, who cannot be judg'd in the common Courts: But this is otherwise in Prussia and Volhinia, as may hereafter appear more at large. These Pala­tins are all Princes by their Office.

Vice- Pala­tins, and how quali­fy'd. The Palatins have every one a Vice- Pala­tin under them, and in some Places more [Page 60] than one, whom they name themselves, and take their Oaths to be true and faithful to them only: These Vice- Palatins must have a Competency in Land to qualify'em for that Employment.

Duty of Castellans. Immediately after the Palatins and the other four priviledg'd Persons, come the se­veral Castellans, who are all Senators, and Lieutenants to the Palatins in time of War, leading the Gentry of their Jurisdiction into the Field, under the Command of the Pala­tins.

Their Di­vision. Of these Castellans there are several in eve­ry Palatinate which are distinguish'd by the greater and lesser; the greater are so call'd, because, excepting very few, they derive the Names of their Castellanies from Palatinates; whereas the lesser do take theirs only from Districts, which makes them sometimes call'd Castellani Districtuum. Also another Reason why they are so divided is, because the lesser Castellans sit only on Benches behind the other Senators: Also they may be term'd the lesser, in regard that it is not long since they were first admitted of the Senate, and that they are sometimes excluded. But however, in all other Respects they are equal.

Qualifica­tions. The necessary Qualifications of a Castellan are to be a Nobleman of Poland, and to have Lands and Tenements in the Territory whereof he is Castellan.

Office and Titles. In times of Peace, except their Office in the Senate, the Castellans have no Jurisdicti­on, except in criminal Cases; the Titles of Magnifici or Wielmozni are given by the Chan­cery to the greater Sort of them, and of Ge­nerosi [Page 61] or Ʋrodzeni to the lesser, but common­ly all the Castellans are saluted by the Titles of Illustrissimi or Jasnie Wielmozni.

Greater Castellans and their Precedence. The Names and Precedence in the Senate, of all these Castellans, and first of the greater Sort.

The thirty seventh Lay- Senator is, XXXVII

Lay-Sena­tor. The Castellan of Posnania.

The thirty eighth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Sendomir. XXXVIII

The thirty ninth Lay- Senator is, XXXIX

The Castellan of Kalisch.

The fortieth Lay- Senator is, XL

The Castellan of Wounitz, a Town in the Palatinate of Cracovia. XLI

The forty first Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Gnesna, a City in the Palatinate of Posnania.

The forty second Lay- Senator is, XLII

The Castellan of Siradia.

The forty third Lay- Senator is, XLIII

The Castellan of Lanschet or Lencici.

The forty fourth Lay- Senator is, XLIV

The Castellan of Samogitia.

The forty fifth Lay- Senator is, XLV

The Castellan of Bresty or Bressici.

The forty sixth Lay- Senator is, XLVI

The Castellan of Kiovia.

The forty seventh Lay- Senator is, XLVII

The Castellan of Inowlocz.

The forty eighth Lay- Senator is, XLVIII

The Castellan of Leopol, a City in the Palatinate of Russia.

[Page 62] XLIX The forty ninth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Volhynia.

L The fiftieth Lay- Senator is,

Honorary. The Castellan of Caminiec, a strong Ci­ty in the Palatinate of Podolia.

LI The fifty first Lay- Senator is,

Honorary. The Castellan of Smolensko.

LII The fifty second Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Lublin.

LIII The fifty third Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Losk or Polocz.

LIV The fifty fourth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Belez or Belsko.

LV The fifty fifth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Novogrodec.

LVI The fifty sixth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Plocksko.

LVII The fifty seventh Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Witebsko.

LVIII The fifty eighth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Czirna, a District in the Province of Masovia.

LIX The fifty ninth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Podlachia.

LX The sixtieth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Rava.

LXI The sixty first Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Briescia or Polesia.

LXII The sixty second Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Culm.

LXIII The sixty third Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Mscislaw or Msceislaw.

LXIV The sixty fourth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Elbing, a considerable City in the Palatinate of Pomerania.

[Page 63] The sixty fifth Lay- Senator is, LXV

The Castellan of Braclaw.

The sixty sixth Lay- Senator is, LXVI

The Castellan of Dantzic, a famous Ci­ty in the Palatinate of Marienburg.

The sixty seventh Lay- Senator is, LXVII

The Castellan of Minsch or Minski.

The sixty eighth Lay- Senator is, LXVIII

Honorary. The Castellan of Livonia.

The sixty ninth Lay- Senator is, LXIX

Honorary. The Castellan of Czernicovia.

Lesser Ca­stellans. The lesser Sort of Castellans are as follows.

The seventieth Lay- Senator is, LXX

The Castellan of Sandecz, a Town and District in the Palatinate of Cracovia.

The seventy first Lay- Senator is, LXXI

The Castellan of Mezaritz, a Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.

The seventy second Lay- Senator is, LXXII

The Castellan of Visticz, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.

The seventy third Lay- Senator is, LXXIII

The Castellan of Biecz, a City and Di­strict in the Palatinate of Cracovia.

The seventy fourth Lay- Senator is, LXXIV

The Castellan of Ragosno, a Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.

The seventy fifth Lay- Senator is, LXXV

The Castellan of Radomsko, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.

The seventy sixth Lay- Senator is, LXXVI

The Castellan of Zawichost, a City in the same Palatinate.

[Page 64] LXXVII The seventy seventh Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Land or Landaw, a

Town in the Palatinate of Kalisch.

LXXVIII The seventy eighth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Srzdo or Sremsk, a

Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.

LXXIX The seventy ninth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Zarnow, a Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.

LXXX The eightieth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Malagost or Malogsch, a Town in the same.

LXXXI The eighty first Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Vielunia, a Territory in the Palatinate of Siradia.

LXXXII The eighty second Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Praemislaw, a District in the Palatinate of Russia.

LXXXIII The eighty third Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Halicz, a District in the same Palatinate.

LXXXIV The eighty fourth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Sanoch, a District in the same Palatinate.

LXXXV The eighty fifth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Chelm.

LXXXVI The eighty sixth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Drohiczin, a District of the Province of Podlachia.

LXXXVII The eighty seventh Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Poloviec, a Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.

LXXXVIII The eighty eighth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Premecz or Primen, a Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.

[Page 65] The eighty ninth Lay- Senator is, LXXXIX

The Castellan of Kriven, a Town in the same Palatinate.

The ninetieth Lay- Senator is, XC

The Castellan of Czekow, a Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.

The ninety first Lay- Senator is, XCI

The Castellan of Nakel or Naklo, a

Town in the Palatinate of Kalisch.

The ninety second Lay- Senator is, XCII

The Castellan of Rosprza, a Town in the Palatinate of Siradia.

The ninety third Lay- Senator is, XCIII

The Castellan of Biechovia, a Town in the Palatinate of Lanschet.

The ninety fourth Lay- Senator is, XCIV

The Castellan of Bidgotz, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Inowlocz.

The ninety fifth Lay- Senator is, XCV

The Castellan of Brezini, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Lanschet.

The ninety sixth Lay- Senator is, XCVI

The Castellan of Kruswick, a District and City in the Palatinate of Bresty.

The ninety seventh Lay- Senator is, XCVII

The Castellan of Oswieczin, a Dutchy and City in the Palatinate of Cracovia.

The ninety eighth Lay- Senator is, XCVIII

The Castellan of Kamin, a Town in the Palatinate of Kalisch.

The ninety ninth Lay- Senator is, XCIX

The Castellan of Spicimiria or Rizepice, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Sira­dia.

The hundredth Lay- Senator is, C

[Page 66] The Castellan of Inowlocz.

CI The hundred and first Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Kowalow, a Town in the Palatinate of Bresty.

CII The hundred and second Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Zandoc, a Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.

CIII The hundred and third Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Sochazovia, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Rava.

CIV The hundred and fourth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Warsaw, a District and famous City in the Province of Masovia.

CV The hundred and fifth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Gostinin, a District and capital City in the Palatinate of Rava.

CVI The hundred and sixth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Wisna, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Masovia.

CVII The hundred and seventh Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Radzanow, a Town in the Palatinate of Plosko.

CVIII The hundred and eighth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Sieprcz or Siepez, a Town in the same Palatinate.

CIX The hundred and ninth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Wissegrod, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Masovia.

CX The hundred and tenth Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Ripin, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Dobrina.

CXI The hundred and eleventh Lay- Senator is,

The Castellan of Zacrol, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Masovia.

CXII The hundred and twelfth Lay- Senator is,

[Page 67] The Castellan of Cickanow, a District and Town in the same Palatinate.

The hundred and thirteenth Lay- Senator is, CXIII

The Castellan of Liw or Liwo, a District and Town in the same Palatinate.

The hundred and fourteenth Lay- Senator is, CXIV

The Castellan of Slonsk, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Dobrina.

The hundred and fifteenth Lay- Senator is, CXV

The Castellan of Lubazow, a Town in Royal- Prussia.

The hundred and sixteenth Lay- Senator is, CXVI

The Castellan of Konarzew, a Town in the Palatinate of Siradia.

The hundred and seventeenth Lay- Sena­tor is, CXVII

The Castellan of Konarzew, in the Pala­tinate of Lanschet.

The hundred and eighteenth Lay- Sena­tor is, CXVIII

The Castellan of Konarzew, in the Terri­tory of Cujavia.

No enjoying Plurality of Offices. Having thus gone thro' the several Prece­dencies of the Bishops, Palatins, and Castel­lans in the Senate; Your GRACE may please to observe, that a Palatin cannot be a Castellan of the same Place whereof he is Pa­latin: Nor can either of them two be a Sta­rosta, or any other Officer in the same Palati­nate or Castellany; except some few, and all those of Lithuania and Prussia, where the Pa­latins govern wholly by Martial Law. Nei­ther can a Palatin, Castellan, or Starosta have two Commands, either of the same Kind, or any other at the same time.

[Page 68] It is likewise to be observ'd, that no Ca­stellan can be Burgrave of the Castle of Cra­cow, or any other Castle, whilst he is Castel­lan.

Castellans, how call'd in Polish. In the Polish Tongue the Castellans are call'd Lords of a Place, by adding only the Termi­nation of Ki or Ski to it; as Pan Poznanski, Lord of Posnan, &c.

The ten Crown-Offi­cers. Last of all the Lay- Senators, come the ten Crown-Officers, who stand about the Throne on each Side of the King. Their Degrees are as follow, viz.

• The great Marshal or great Steward of Po­land.
• The great Marshal or great Steward of Li­thuania.
• The great Chancellor of the Kingdom.
• The great Chancellor of the Dutchy.
• The Vice-Chancellor of the Kingdom.
• The Vice-Chancellor of the Dutchy.
• The great Treasurer of the Crown.
• The great Treasurer of the Dutchy.
• The little Marshal or Court-Marshal of the Kingdom.
• The little Marshal or Court-Marshal of the Dutchy.

Those of the Kingdom precede. Here it is to be observ'd, that the five Se­nator-Officers of Lithuania have the same Dig­nity and Power with those of the Kingdom, except that they give place to the Former: But first for,

CXIX Lay-Sena­tor.The hundred and nineteenth Lay-Senator who is,

[Page 69] The great Marshal, or great Steward of Poland.

His Office. His Office is to prepare every thing for the general Diet, either by Command of the King, or the Primate; to assign Stations for the several Members, to exclude such as are none, and to provide Lodgings for foreign Ministers; and moreover, to take care that all be safe, where that general Assembly of the States is to convene. Likewise to set Prizes upon all Vendibles, and to moderate publick Shows.

Power and Authority. He may punish Offenders and seditious Persons, even with Death, without being subject to an Appeal, unless it be in a Mat­ter of very great Consequence. He has the Authority to impose Silence, and to give Li­berty to speak. He has a Power to admonish a Senator or Deputy, if he exceeds the Bounds of Modesty in his Harangue. His Business is to promulgate the Acts of the Senate., and to put in Execution the King's Decrees, either in Cases of Infamy or Death. His Duty is Duty and Privilege.also to carry a Staff erected before the King where-ever he goes, and to take care that all the Court-Officers perform their Duty in their several Stations, over whom he has the sole Jurisdiction in criminal Cases. If any Person so much as wounds one of his Officers, he loses his Head for it, by a Law made in the Year 1573. He is moreover the Introducer of all Ambassadors.

His Perqui­sites. He has an exceeding great Benefit, by im­posing Prizes on Merchants Wares, for they generally make him great Presents and Bribes, to augment their Profit. Neverthe­less [Page 70] his Power is very much lessen'd in the Time of the Election of a King▪ for then he must act in Conjunction with the Grand Mar­shal of Lithuania.

Deputy, and who offici­ates in Ca­ses of Ab­sence. He always acts by Assistance of the Court- Marshal, who is his Deputy in his Absence. And when the Court- Marshal absents like­wise, the Duty of that Office is requir'd from the Grand Marshal of Lithuania, and in his Absence from his Little Marshal: And when all these are absent, that Duty is incumbent on the Chancellors and Treasurers in their re­spective Turns.

CXX The hundred and twentieth Lay- Senator is,

The grand Marshal or grand Steward of Lithuania.

His Office. His Office is much the same with that of the grand Marshal of Poland.

CXXI The hundred and twenty first Lay- Senator is,

The great Chancellor of the Kingdom.

CXXII The hundred and twenty second Lay- Sena­tor is,

The great Chancellor of the Dutchy.

CXXIII The hundred and twenty third Lay- Sena­tor is,

The Vice-Chancellor of the Crown.

CXXIV The hundred and twenty fourth Lay- Se­nator is,

The Vice-Chancellor of the Dutchy.

Qualificati­ons of these of the King­dom. The Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor of the Kingdom must be the one Ecclesiastical, and the other Secular; by a Law made at Cracow, in the Time of Sigismund I. But those of the [Page 71] Great Dutchy are both oblig'd to be Secular; tho ^* Hartknoch says there is no Law against a Bishop's being Chancellor there.

Both have Seals and equal Au­thority. They have each of them two Seals, the Chancellor the greater Seal, and the Vice-Chancellor the lesser: Their Authority is equal, except that the former always takes Place of the latter, tho' he happens to be a Bishop, and that the Vice-Chancellor does not act but in Absence of the Chancellor, or at least under him.

Their Office and Power. The Chancellor's Office is to take Cogni­zance of all civil Affairs; to see Justice done, the Laws observ'd, and to render ineffectual the Cabals and Intrigues of foreign Princes, in Prejudice of the Liberties and Authority of the Republick. They are to seal all the King's Mandates and Grants, and to receive and answer all his Letters. Their Power also is so great, that they can seal several things without the King's Consent, and refuse as many, where he commands, if they are con­trary to the Constitution of the State. The Chancellor, or in his Absence, the Vice-Chancellor, answer to all Speeches made the King, and propose all Matters to be debated in the Senate. He of the two that is Ecclesi­astical, hath a Power over the King's Secre­taries, Chaplains and Preachers; as likewise over all the Ceremonies of the Church, which in any wise relate to the King. They are the general Chroniclers and Publishers of the Laws, and take Cognisance of all Appeals made to the King.

[Page 72] Succeed each other. The Vice-Chancellor generally succeeds the Chancellor, tho sometimes in Lithuania it has happen'd otherwise: The Ecclesiastical Chancellor or Vice-Chancellor of Poland is, for the most part, chosen out of the meaner Bishopricks, as Culm, Premislia, Chelm, &c.

How ought to be Qua­lified. They ought to be Persons of great Pru­dence, Learning, and Probity; their Busi­ness being to admonish, advise, and direct the King in his Administration of the Govern­ment.

CXXV The hundred and twenty fifth Lay- Senator is,

The great Treasurer of the Crown.

CXXVI The hundred and twenty sixth Lay- Senator is,

The great Treasurer of the Dutchy.

Their Office and Autho­rity. These Treasurers are Masters and Guardi­ans of the Treasure and Revenue of the Re­publick, which is brought them in by four ge­neral Collectors, who all keep a true Register of it, giving a Copy thereof to the King, and another to the Treasurer. They also have the keeping of the Regalia, as the Crown, Scepter, Globe, Sword of State, Robes, &c. They moreover have in their Custody all the King's Furniture and Re­cords, and are to preside in the Office of the Mint: They likewise pay all Salaries, either of the Military or civil List. The Treasu­rers Privilege is so great, that they are not oblig'd to give any Account, either to the King, or any of his Officers, how they per­form their Trust; but in due Time the Diet appointing Commissioners for that Purpose, they are oblig'd faithfully to charge and dis­charge [Page 73] themselves before them; otherwise the Republick may sue them for it, and confis­cate their Lands: Nevertheless the Treasu­rers (who most commonly misemploy the publick Stock) by treating the Commissio­ners well, and making them considerable Pre­sents withal, often obtain their Discharge without much Difficulty.

A remark­able Breach of Trust. I may here give your Grace an Account of a Passage that happen'd when Count Morstyn was great Treasurer of Poland, who having more Regard to his own private Interest, than publick Benefit, sent all the Riches of the Treasury into France, when fearing that the Diet would soon think fit to call him to Account, he retir'd privately with all his Effects out of the Kingdom, and went to settle in France, where he purchas'd the whole County of Chateau-Villain, which is worth above an hundred thousand Livres a Year.

The hundred and twenty seventh Lay- Se­nator CXXVII is,

The little or Court- Marshal of the King­dom.

The hundred and twenty eighth Lay- Se­nator CXXVIII is,

The little or Court- Marshal of the Dutchy.

Contend for Precedence, but refus'd it. These Court- Marshals, in the Time of Ʋladislaus VII. had a Contest with the Chan­cellors for Precedence; but at length they were order'd to be contented with the last Place in the Senate; therefore Starovolscius, who in his Colen Edition of the State of Po­land, places them next to the great Marshals [Page 74] in that of Dantzic puts them last of all.

Extra-Se­natorial Officers It will not be here amiss to acquaint Your Grace, that besides these ten Crown-Officers there are three other Sorts of Officers which are not Senators, and they are either of the Kingdom and Great Dutchy, the King's Court, or belonging peculiarly to Palatinates and Di­stricts. The Principal of the first Kind are these:

Great Ge­nerals The two Grand Generals, of the Crown and Great Dutchy, who are the King's imme­diate Substitutes, and have a full Power to do whatever his Majesty could, were he pre­sent. Tho this Dignity of Great General be the most considerable and honorable of any in the Republic, yet does it not make the Person that enjoys it to be a Senator, nor qualifies him to have the least Seat in the Diet, unless he be therewithal a Palatin or Castellan, as most commonly he is.

Have equal Authority. The two great Generals of Poland and Li­thuania have equal Power in their respective States, and have no Dependance upon each other, unless that the Great General of Lithu­ania always gives Place to him of Poland; yet has he the sole Command of the great Dutchy's Army, and receives no manner of Orders from the Crown-General, except where both are jointly engag'd in a Bat­tle.

Their Power, These great Generals in the King's Ab­sence, have the greatest Power in the King­dom, for they have then a supreme Command in the Army: They give Battle, and be­siege [Page 75] Towns without the King's Participati­on, and settle Winter-Quarters where, and upon what Lands they think fit: This Pow­er of theirs is so extraordinary considerable, that a great General is formidable to all the Nobility.

and Duty. Their Duty is to keep good Order and Discipline in the Army; to punish mutinous and seditious Officers and Soldiers; to settle the Prizes of all Commodities and Provisions brought into the Camp; to give Command or necessary Orders for a Charge or Retreat: and in fine, to do any thing that his Majesty could were he present.

King's In­terest to head his Army. It is therefore the Interest of a King of Po­land always to head his Army himself, to have his Sons with him in the Field, and to give them Opportunity to gain Reputation and Credit by their Valour and Conduct; for the more the King encreases his own Fame, or that of his Sons, the more he dimi­nishes the Credit and Power of his Generals, who are the only Persons in the Kingdom that are most to be fear'd, and who have the greatest Power and Influence over the Gentry in the Election of a King.

Present great Ge­nerals. The present great General of Poland, is the Count Jablonowski, of the French Faction; and of Lithuania, Prince Sapieha, suppos'd to be of the Austrian Faction.

Dignity successive. When the Office of great General is va­cant, the little or Lieutenant-General has a Right to succeed him.

Lieute­nant-Gene­rals, and their Office. The two Lieutenant-Generals of Poland and Lithuania are to preside in all Court-Marshals, and to take care that Guard be [Page 76] strictly kept throughout the Camp. Also they are to observe, that all Spies and Scouts be sent out as often as Occasion re­quires; and lastly, to see that foreign Soldi­ers be duly paid.

Chief Com­mander of the Guards. The Business of the chief Commander of the King's Guards in the Camp, is to com­mand solely those Soldiers who are assign'd to guard his Majesty's Person in the Camp; but upon the Kings Departure, this Officer's Power ceases.

Other great Officers in the Army. There are several other Officers of Note in the Army, the most considerable of which are, the great Ensign or Standard-Bearer, the great Master of the Artillery, the Camp Notaries, and Commander of the Guards against Incursions; of which two last I shall only speak here.

Camp-No­taries. Camp-Notaries are Pay-Masters General for the Army both of the Kingdom and great Dutchy.

Captain of Guards a­gainst In­cursions. The chief Commander of the Guards against the Incursions of the Tartars, &c.

This Officer is posted on the Confines of the Kingdom towards Crim-Tartary, &c. and is to give Notice of all the Motions of the Enemy.

Great Se­cretaries and their Authority. For the civil State-Officers, there are the two great Secretaries of the Kingdom and Dutchy. They have a Power to enter into the Privy-Council, and to take Cognizance of what the Chancellors and Vice▪Chancellors do. They must both be Ecclesiasticks, and their Office is a great Step to the Chancellor's Dignity. They have the keeping of the King's Signet, and are qualify'd for the high­est [Page 77] Episcopal Honours, and have Precedence before most Officers of the Court or King­dom.

Referenda­ries and their Office. The Masters of Requests, or Referendaries of the Kingdom and the great Dutchy: Their Business is to receive Petitions made to the King, and to give his Majesty's An­swer. They have a Place in any of the King's Courts of Justice. These are in all four; one Ecclesiastical and one Civil for the Kingdom, and the like for the great Cup-Bear­ers, Carvers, Sword-Bearers. Court-Treasurers and their Office.Dutchy.

• Two Cup-Bearers for each Nation.
• for the same
  • Two Carvers and
  • Two Sword-Bearers

The Treasurers of the Court in the King­dom and the great Dutchy: These supply either the Absence or Vacancy of the Office of the great Treasurers.

Treasurer of Prussia. The Treasurer of Prussia, whose Business is to take all Accounts of the Collectors of Revenue in that Province, and to transmit them to the great Treasurers.

Associates to Judges. Associates to Judges, which are generally such as reside in the King's Court, viz. the Masters of Requests, Vice-Chancellors, &c.

Chief No­taries. Two chief Notaries of the Courts of Ju­stice for civil Causes, either of the Kingdom or the great Dutchy.

Registers inChancery. Two Registers in the Chancery of both Nations.

Escheator. An Officer that looks after the Escheats, call'd by us Escheator. He can either sue for or seize any such Lands or Goods as fall to the Crown.

[Page 78] Commissio­ners of Cu­stom House. The Commissioners of the Custom-Houses, who give in their Accounts as often as the great Treasurers require them.

Governours of Mines. The Governours of the Silver, Lead, and Salt Mines: They exercise Jurisdiction over the Workmen there, but must nevertheless admit of Appeals to Court.

Governours of the Mint. The Governours or Wardens of the Mint, which are for the most part the Treasurers of the Kingdom: Their Business is to take care that the Mony there coin'd be of Weight and Value.

Court-Officers. The chief Officers of the King's Court are treated of before in the Letter to his Grace, the Archbishop of Canterbury.

Civil Offi­cers of Di­stricts. The Officers of Districts may be divided in­to two Sorts; Civil and Military. The ci­vil are,

Vice-Chamber­lain and his Office, The Vice-Chamberlain, whose Office is to decide all Differences within his District about the Bounds of Land, &c. to which he is sworn. He has several Deputies under Chamber­lains.him, call'd Chamberlains, whom he chooses out of the Gentry of his Jurisdiction, and to whom he gives an Oath to be true and faith­ful in the Execution of their Office. It is at his Pleasure to displace these as often as he thinks fit.

Judge and Assistant. The Judge; who together with his Assi­stant, determines all civil Causes and Contro­versies.

Prothono­tary. The Prothonotary, who in those Courts has likewise a Power of giving his Opini­on.

[Page 79] Head Col­lector. The head Collector of the publick Reve­nue, who is accountable above.

Other Offi­cers, and why so call'd. The other Officers are less considerable, being Sewers, Carvers, Cup-Bearers, Sword-Bearers, &c. The Reason of there being such Officers in every Palatinate, is because formerly each Province of Poland was a So­vereignty, and had its peculiar Princes, who had all their Court-Officers. But now tho these Offices remain, yet it is only with Ho­norary Titles, and some few Privileges, the chiefest of which are, that when the King comes into their Palatinate, his Court-Offi­cers must leave to them the Honour of serv­ing him at Table, bearing the Sword before him, &c.

Military Officers of Districts. The Military Officers of a District are,

Starostas with Juris­diction. Starostas with Jurisdiction are Governours of Castles and Royal Cities, who sit and hear private Causes of small Moment once a Fort­night, and those of greater concern every six Weeks, if nothing intervene to prevent them.

Vice-Staro­stas, &c. These have Vice- Starostas, Judges, Clerks, and Servants in the Nature of Sheriffs Offi­cers, to enforce Justice, in Cases of Resi­stance.

Jurisdicti­on of Sta­rostas. The Jurisdiction of these Starostas extends not only over the Commonalty, but likewise over the Gentry. They have also a Care of [Page 80] the King's Revenue arising within their Di­strict, and may discount a fourth Part for their Trouble.

Starostas without Ju­risdiction. The Starostas without Jurisdiction are those who are properly Tenants in Ca­pite. They have no Power to exercise Justice, unless in very slight Cases.

Burgraves and their Office. Burgraves and Tribunes have the Custody of Castles, Forts, &c. and are to keep con­stant Guard there, either by themselves or their Deputies. These are subject to the Starostas.

Revenue of Starosta­ships. The Revenue of Starostaships partly arises from Agriculture, and partly from Manu­facture and Handicrafts. They have been sometimes known to have been Mort­gag'd to raise the King's Revenue more speedily, especially those without Jurisdicti­on.

Zuppars, what. Here likewise the Officers of the Mines (call'd Zuppars in Polish) may be taken no­tice of, who have divers Officers and Substi­tutes under them.

The Minor Ecclesiastical and Temporal Officers and Persons of this Kingdom be­ing, in all Respects, like to those of other Nations, I have purposely omitted them.

Thus, My LORD, I have gone thro' the several Particulars which I propos'd to entertain Your GRACE and the Publick with, yet at the same time cannot but be highly sensible of my Presumption [Page 81] in prefixing Your Great Name to so im­perfect an Account; therefore hoping Your GRACE'S Pardon upon an humble Ac­knowledgment, I beg Leave▪ to subscribe my self,

LETTER III.
To the Right Honourable JAMES VERNON Esq Principal Secre­tary of State.

THE high Trust lately confided in you, and your eminent Services to this Government in your former Stations, sufficiently proclaim both his Ma­jesty's Prudence, and your Merit: But as the Business of your Office requires a univer­sal Inspection into Forreign States, and pre­suming you might not have hitherto had Leisure to look into the present Posture of Affairs in so remote a Country as that of Poland, I have ventur'd to Address the follow­ing Account of the Diet of that Kingdom to You, tho I were highly sensible at the same [Page] [...] [Page]

A. The Present King in his Throne.

BB. The ten Crown Officers.

C. The A Bp. of Gnesna w ^th the Cross born behind him.

DDDD. The other Ecclesiasticall Senators.

EEEEE. Forreign Embassadors admitted only to the Diet of Election.

[Page] FFFFFF. The Palatins & Castellans in the three Rows on each side.

GGGGGG. The Deputy s in the two back Rows on each side.

H. The Nuncio Marshall or Speaker of Deputy s.

IIII. Vacant seats for such others as are sometimes admitted.

1. The Arms of Poland. 2. The Arms of Lithuania.

[Page] [Page 83] time, that you must necessarily meet with a great many Imperfections in the Perfor­mance, yet I hop'd my Endeavours might attone for my Incapacity, and the ra­ther because I have advanc'd nothing in this Letter, but what I had either from the best Books, or the latest Memoirs.

SIR,

What the Diet is. The Grand Diet or Parliament of Poland, by the Natives call'd Seym Walny, is an As­sembly of the King, Senators, and Nuncio's, or Deputies of every Province met together in any City or Town of Poland or Lithuania, in order to deliberate upon State Affairs, and the Means to secure and preserve the Kingdom, both in Times of Peace and War.

By whom call'd, and where and how often meet. It is the King, or during an Inter regnum, the Primate who has the sole Power of con­voking this great Assembly, as likewise to determine the Place where, and the Time when it shall sit. By the Constitutions of the Kingdom, the King is oblig'd to call a Diet every third Year, and of every three succes­sively call'd, two must be held in Poland, most commonly at Warsaw, and the third in Lithuania, in the City of Grodno, in the Pa­latinate of Troki, twenty Leagues from Vilna, Capital of this great Dutchy: So that every ninth Year the King, with all the Senators and Deputies of the Kingdom, goes into Lithua­nia; and every third the Senators and Depu­ties of Lithuania come into Poland. The Reason of the Diet's being held in Lithuania was, because the Lithuanians complain'd that [Page 84] it was not a little inconvenient for them to come so far as Poland.

Manner of calling it, and Pro­ceedings thereupon. When the King has a mind to convoke this general Meeting, he is to send out circular Letters six Weeks before the time he ap­points for its Session, by the Constitution in the Year 1613. to all the Palatins of the Pro­vinces, acquainting them with his Design, together with the Time he intends it shall meet. He sends them likewise a List of all the Affairs and Articles which are to be treat­ed of in that Diet. Whereupon every Pala­tin or his Deputy, in his own respective Go­vernment, forthwith dispatches Notice to all the Castellans, Starostas, and other Gentry, requiring them at a certain Time to meet to­gether, in order to deliberate on the Articles and Affairs propos'd by the King's Letters, as likewise to choose a Nuncio or Deputy to represent their Intentions and Decisions in the Great Diet. These Letters are pro­claim'd by a Herald (call'd by the Poles Woz­ny) and afterwards pasted up upon all the Town-Gates and Church-Doors. These Assemblies in the Provinces are term'd by them Comitiola (in the Polish Language Seymi­ki) or little Diets. In Cases of Extremity, six Weeks Notice need not be given, as ap­pears by the Constitutions of the Year, 1638.

Where the little Diets meet. The several Places these little Diets meet at are as follow.

[Page 85] I. In Great Poland. In Lower or Great Poland.

• Posuan and Kalisch, Siradia.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Sroda,
    • Schadkow,

• Vielunia
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Vielun,

• Lanschet, Bresty, and Inowlocz.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Lanschet,
    • Radzieiow.

Appointed by the ^*Constitutions in the Year 1510.

In the Palatinate of Dobrina, the little Diet meets in the Town of Ripin.

Appointed by the Constitutions in the Year 1567.

• Plosko, Rava in three Pla­ces.
  • In the Citys & Towns of
    • Radzanow,
    • Rava,
    • Sochaczow
    • Gombin.

• [Page 84] Podlachia in three Places.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Droghiczin,
    • Mielnik,
    • Bransko.
• Masovia in ten Places.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Cirna,
    • Warsaw,
    • Wisna,
    • Wissegrod,
    • Zakrol,
    • Ciekanow,
    • Lombze,
    • Rozan,
    • Liw, and Nur.

II. In Lit­tle-Poland. In the Province of Upper or Little- Poland.

• Cracovia in two Pla­ces.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Zator for the Dutchy of Oswiec­zin, and Prossovia for the Palatinate.

By the Constitutions of the Year 1667.

• Sendomir and Lublin.
  • In the Citys & Towns of
    • Opatow and Lublin.

[Page 85] III. In Li­thuania. In the Great Dutchy of Lithuania.

• Vilna in four Places.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Vilna,
    • Osmian,
    • Wilcomitz,
    • Braclaw.
• Troki in five Places.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Troki,
    • Grodno.
    • Cowno,
    • Lida,
    • Ponienwiez.
• Polocz
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Polocz.
• Novogrodec in two Pla­ces.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Slonim,
    • Wolkowizko.
• Witebsko in two Places.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Witebsko,
    • Orska.
• Briescia or Polesia in two Places.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Briescia,
    • Pinsko.
• Mscislaw,
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Msceislaw.
• Minsk in three Pla­ces.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Minsk,
    • Modzir,
    • Reczycza.

IV. In Prussia. In the Province of Prussia.

• Pomerania, Marienburg, Culm, Elbing.
• In the Cities and Towns of
  • Imprimis, in all the Di­stricts, then in Stargar-Stuma, (die. Michalovia, and Graudentz▪ Elbing.

[Page 88] V. In Rus­sia. In the Province of Russia.

• Russia in five Places.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Leopol,
    • Praemislaw,
    • Sanoch,
    • Halitz,
    • Chelm.
• Belsko, Podolia.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Belsko,
    • Caminiec.

Since Caminiec's being taken by the Turks, its Little Diet meets at Leopol.

• Kiovia, Braclaw.
  • In the Cities and Towns of
    • Zytomierz afterwards at Woldzi­miers in Vol­hynia.

VI. In Vol­hynia. In the Province of Volhynia.

• Vinnicza, af­terwards at Woldzimierz.

VII. In Sa­mogitia. In the Dutchy of Samogitia.

In the Town of Rosienia.

[Page 89] Qualifica­tions for, and All Sorts of Gentlemen, both rich and poor, providing they have but three Acres of Land in their Possession, which must be worth at least eight Crowns Sterling a Year, have a Right to come to these little Diets, where they all have equal Authority and Votes, but however no body under a Polish Gentleman, has a Suffrage there. One of these Gentry once hinder'd a Person from being chosen Chairman of a little Diet till the Candidate had given him a Pair of Polish Boots, for he was before almost bare-footed, after which he consented and came in and approv'd of the Election.

Manner of voting in little Di­ets. All the Decisions here, as in the great Diet, did not formerly go by Plurality of Voices, but by unanimous Consent, which frequently bred abundance of Disorder, and often­times the Diets broke up without having con­cluded any thing, and that by reason of the Contests and Obstinacy of some private Members who had the Power to oppose all the rest, and who most commonly were bri­bed by one Side or other. At these little Diets the poorer Sort of Gentry always side with their Seigneur, and ever approve of what he says, without knowing sometimes what the Matter in Hand is: An Example whereof, Dr. Connor says, happen'd in his Time at one of these Assemblies, in the Province of Maso­via, where some Affairs of the Province being in Debate, and one of the Gentry declaring against them, his Party or Mob, not knowing what the Business was, cry'd like Mad-men, that such an Affair should not pass, whereupon a witty Fellow, observing [Page 88] their senseless Rage, started up and cry'd, Brethren, you are Fools to oppose this Affair, for the Question is only to abate the Price of Wheat and Aquavitae; whereat they immediately consented to, and approv'd of the Matter propos'd, and cry'd, that their Seigneur was a Rogue that had betray'd them, and moreover threatned him with their Sabres.

Who, and how many chosen De­puties: With their Instructi­ons. Notwithstanding every little Gentleman can vote for whom he pleases, yet the Electi­on always falls upon some rich Nobleman, who can treat high, and make a Figure suita­ble to this honourable Charge. Most com­monly they choose two or three Deputies for every Palatinate; one of which is always an understanding Man, and the rest are young Noblemen, chosen only for Honours sake, or that they may be train'd up betimes in the Service of their Country. When the Depu­ties are chosen, they receive full Instructions from the Gentry of their Province, of what they are to consent or dissent to in the general Diet, and when once they are intrusted with these Instructions, they dare not for their Lives transgress them; so that if but one Deputy has Orders contrary to the rest, it lies in his single Power to break all their Mea­sures.

Proceed­ings in lit­tle Diets. In these little Diets, their first Care is to choose a Marshal or Chair-man, whose Of­fice is much the same with the Marshal or Speaker of the general Diet.

^* This Chair-man in Lithuania, when once chosen, continues the same for Life. This [Page 89] Officer being elected, they next proceed to the receiving of the King's Nuncio, which is done by the chief Deputy, and by him plac'd at the upper End of the Table. This Person proposes in the King's Name, what they are to debate upon, having first satisfy'd them of his Commission. But here it must be ob­serv'd, that to some of these Conventions, the King transmits his Instructions by a Sta­rosta.

Deputies, how chosen. The Nuncio's or Deputies are now elected by Plurality of Voices, to avoid Confusion and Disorder.

^† The Number of all these Nuncios amounts commonly to 174. besides those of Prussia, which are uncertain, and which in the Year 1685. were 70. of themselves.

Cannot be Senators. These Deputies cannot be chosen Senators, and are for the most part elected out of the common Magistrates, excepting the Judges of the high Tribunals, Assessors, Collectors of the Revenue, &c.

Their Sala­ries. It is to be observ'd, that these Deputies have certain Salaries assign'd 'em by the Con­stitutions in the Year 1540.

When first sent. These Nuncios were first sent to the Diet under the Reign of Casimir III. who having had thirteen Years War with the Knights of the Teutonic Order, and being at a Loss to pay his Army, orders the Provinces to send De­puties to lay Impositions; which, they be­ing Representatives of their Country, might ⁹ [Page 90] be the easier comply'd with. These Deputies have continu'd ever since.

Their gene­ral Meet­ings. Besides the Convention at the little Diets, the Senators and Deputies, when elected, have general Meetings before they come to the grand Diet at these several Places.

I For Great Poland at Kolo in Kalisch.

• Posnania,
• Kalisch,
• Siradia,
• Lanschet,
• Bresty,
• Inowlocz,
• Ploczkow,
• Dobrina,
• Rava,

• Vielunia.

II For Lesser Poland at Corzin in Sendomir.

• Cracovia,
• Sendomir,
• Russia,
• Podolia,
• Belsko, and
• Lublin.

By the Constitution in the Year 1613.

[Page 91] For Prussia at Graudents or Marienbourg. III

• Culm,
• Marienbourg,
• Pomerania,
• as also the Bi­shoprick of Varmia.

For the Great Dutchy of Lithuania at Slo­nim IV in Novogrodec.

• Vilna,
• Troki,
• Briescia,
• Novogrodec,
• Minski,
• Polocz,
• Witebsko,
• Mscislaw,
• Zlucz,
• Braclaw.

By the Constitution in the Year 1631.

The other Palatinates which are not men­tion'd in this Division, have all general Meet­ings, tho' I do not find where.

Diet di­vides into three Na­tions. When all the Deputies of the Provinces are assembled at the Place appointed for the grand Diet, they divide themselves into three Nations, viz.

• [Page 92]High and Low
• Lithuania.
  • Poland and

Speaker, how chosen, and Heats thereupon. Out of these three they next proceed to choose their Marshal or Speaker.

The first time they choose him out of the Deputies of High- Poland, the second out of the Deputies of Low- Poland, and at the third Diet out of the Deputies of Lithuania. Of­tentimes they spend several Days in bloody Contests before they can agree about an Ele­ction: Nay, it happens sometimes, that they never agree at all, as in the Diet con­ven'd in the Year 1695. when all the Senators and Deputies which had made great Prepara­tions to appear in their Grandeur (whereof some came above three hundred Miles) were forc'd to return home again without effecting any thing for want of agreeing about a Mar­shal.

He that designs to get to be elected Mar­shal, must treat the Gentry all the while, otherwise he would have no Vote for him, and commonly they prolong the Election that they may live the longer at the Candi­dates Charges.

How occasi­on'd. The Reason of this great stickling is, be­cause the Dignity of this Marshal is not only very honourable, but also exceeding benefici­al, which occasions several Noblemen among the Deputies, to raise Cabals and In­trigues to secure it for themselves. He has likewise great Authority, and can, by his eloquent and subtle Speeches, turn Affairs on [Page 93] what Side he pleases, which is the Reason that he is often brib'd either by the King, Foreign Princes, or some great Men of the Kingdom.

Next Pro­ceeding. On the Day prefix'd for the Meeting of the Diet, the King, with all the Senators and Nuncios, goes to hear a Sermon, which be­ing ended, he retires into the Senate, where he is severally saluted by the Members there­of: And the Nuncios retiring likewise into their House (call'd by the Poles, Izba Posels­ka) confer together about electing a Speaker, during which, the last Speaker or Marshal officiates till a new one be chosen, and then is oblig'd to resign his Staff to the Marshal elect, who is to take an Oath to be true and faithful before he enters upon his Office.

Further Proceed­ings. When the Marshal or Speaker is elected, he with all the Deputies of the Province, goes to kiss the King's Hand in the Diet-Chamber, where his Majesty sits on a Throne erected for that Purpose. Then the Chancellor in the King's Name proposes all the Points to be debated in the Diet, and desires the Senators and Nobility to take them into Consideration, whereupon the King immediately leaves them, lest his Presence might be an Awe upon them; and then the Senators retiring into their Room by themselves, and the Nuncios into theirs, by them call'd Izba Poselska, they forthwith set about deliberating on the Arti­cles propos'd.

Reflection of Haute­ville. Here SIR, I may remark a pleasant Reflection of Hauteville, in his Account of Poland, where he says, That the Poles employ [Page 94] more Time in drinking and feasting, than in de­bating Matters of State, for that they never think on that Work till they begin to want Money to buy Hungarian Wine.

Speakers Request for the Depu­ties. After the Chancellor has thus propos'd to the Diet in the King's Name, all the Articles they are to go upon, the Marshal of the Nun­cios likwise on the Part of the Deputies, pre­sents to the King what they desire of his Ma­jesty, which is,

1. To make void all Intrenchments, ei­ther upon the State or the People. And,

2. To bestow all vacant Offices upon Per­sons of Worth and Merit.

His Autho­rity. This Marshal of the Deputies has a great Authority over them in the Diet, for he it is that commands Silence among'em, and who transmits all their Requests to the King or Senate; and seeing that by his Power he can either animate or moderate them, it is not to be wonder'd at if he be a Person of no ordina­ry Esteem, and that the Court always en­deavours, by various Favours, to secure him for their Friend.

Proceedings in the low­er House. The Manner of Proceedings in the Nunci­os House is much the same as in the Little Di­ets: No body offers his Opinion there till having first ask'd Leave of the Marshal, who alone introduces all Messengers from the King, Senators, Army, or Foreign Princes, and answers them all in the Name of the House. If any Disserences arise among the Nuncios or other Tumults are rais'd by the [Page 95] Spectators, he causes Silence immediately, by striking his Staff against the Ground.

Conference ^s with the Upper, and Nuncios Power. The two Orders being thus separated, there are nevertheless frequent Intercourses be­tween them, as are between our two most Ho­nourable Houses. The Nuncios have a Pow­er of impeaching all Magistrates and Officers for Male Administration, and to put the King in mind, as often as they think fit, of his Coronation-Oath: Moreover, the Nun­cios Power and Authority appears the great­er, in that no Constitution or Law is of any Validity or Force that was not first begun in their House. Nay, their Marshal is to be the first Starter of all Laws, and when con­cluded upon, it is his Office only to read them before the Senate. For this Reason, in the Year 1668. the Marshal protested against a certain Law, because it was first concerted in the Senate. But what is more to be admir'd than all this is, that the Dissent of one single Nuncio is sufficient to annul the whole Pro­ceedings, and to occasion the Diet to be dis­solv'd.

Confirm'd and encou­rag'd. To confirm this Authority, and for the fu­ther Security of the Nuncios, Sigismund I. in the Year 1510. ordain'd that it should be High Treason to Injure any Member of the Diet, tho he afterwards in the Year 1539. restrain'd this Law to the Royal Person, but which notwithstanding John Casimir in some measure renew'd in the Year 1649.

Their Pri­vilege. ^*If one of these Nuncios commits any Crime, he is to be try'd only by his Fellow-Members. [Page 96] This Privilege of the Nuncios be­gins a Month before, and lasts as long after the Diet.

Commit­tees. Upon some Occasions the Marshal assigns Committees of these Nuncios, who are to transact a-part such Matters as are intrusted to them.

How long sit. The Nuncios remain in their House till the fifth Day before the Conclusion of the Di­et, when they are all to go to the Senate. Et sic Comitia ad Patres transferre dicuntur. But if within the Time assign'd by the Laws, they find they are not able to finish their Busi­ness, they humbly petition the King that the Diet may be prorogu'd.

Upper House how em­ploy'd. Whilst the Nuncios are thus providing for the publick Good in their House, the King and Senate do not pass their Time idly in theirs; for after the Chancellor has given the Charge to the lower House, and they are retir'd; he, together with the Senators, tries criminal Causes for a whole Week, which be­ing ended, there are several other Matters assign'd for certain Days, until the lower House bring up Bills to be debated.

Manner of breaking up Session in the lower. Near the Conclusion of the Diet, and be­fore the Senators and Nuncios are join'd, the Marshal of the lower House, in a set Speech, gives Thanks to the Deputies for the Honour and Favour they have conferr'd upon him, and is answer'd by one of the Nuncios in the Name of the rest, who re­turns him their Acknowledgments for his faithful Execution of his Office.

Two Houses join'd. When the Nuncios are come to the upper House, their Marshal or Speaker sits on a [Page 97] Form below the Senator- Marshals, and the rest of the Deputies stand behind the other Senators, who are seated all in their Order. Being thus join'd, they proceed to confirm, create, or abrogate Laws. No body speaks here without having first obtain'd leave of the great Marshal.

Speakers Power de­volves to great Mar­shal. In this Meeting the Nuncio-Marshal's Pow­er is at an End, his Office being then offici­ated by the great Marshal, either of Poland or Lithuania, or in their Absence, by some other of the Senator. Officers. The great Marshal has Authority, not only to check a Nuncio, but also a Senator in speaking, if he exceeds his Bounds: He also, in case of great Disorders, imposes Silence, by striking his Staff on the Ground.

Where the King sus­pends his Opinion. In Cases of Controversy, the King always suspends his Opinion till the Differences are reconcil'd. This the Kings, Henry and Ste­phen promis'd faithfully to observe, as may appear by the Book of their Laws, Page 254.

What re­quir'd to establish a Law. To establish a Law or Constitution in the Diet, the Deputies must first propose it by their Marshal, and then the King and Senate are to approve of it; but however, before it can have any Force, it must be review'd by the great Marshal and two Deputies, or by three Senators and six Deputies. Having been thus review'd, it is read out in the Diet by the Nuncio- Marshal, after which the Chan­cellors demand with a low Voice, If the King, Senate, and Deputies consent to apply the Seal; which being answer'd in the affirmative, [Page 98] it is presently seal'd and enroll'd among the Acts in the Register of Warsaw, and this by the Care of the Deputy's Marshal, who is to see it done soon after the Conclusion of the Session. After this, one of the King's Secre­taries is to get it printed and dispers'd among the several little Diets and Tribunals all over the Kingdom.

Where it cannot be printed: It must be observ'd that where the Diet has been dissolv'd thro' the Obstinacy of any particular Member, no Laws or Constituti­ons can be committed to the Press: Where­upon in the Year 1665. the Nuncios severely reprov'd their Marshal for but suffering them to be transcrib'd where the Session had been adjourn'd.

The same Law is to be observ'd in all Decrees of the Diet, for immediately after the publishing of them by the Referendary, they are to be transcrib'd, sign'd, seal'd, and printed▪ Those Decrees that concern the Treasury, are to be sign'd only by a Prothonotary ap­pointed for that Purpose.

Session of the Diet limited. By the Constitution of the Kingdom, the Diet ought never to sit above six Weeks, and the Gentry are so very exact in observing this Privilege, that as soon as ever that Time is expir'd, they send their Marshal to take Leave of the King in their Name, and more­over to acquaint him that they intend to wait on him to kiss his Hand, which they are ad­mitted to do soon after. They are so obstinate­ly bent upon defending this Custom, that tho' the Urgencies of State require never so short a Continuance of the Diet after the Time prescrib'd, yet they always vigorously [Page 99] oppose it, as they did in the Year 1649. when the Tartars and Cosacks had almost over-run the Kingdom.

Wherefore. The Reason, I suppose, why the Members of the Diet are so punctual in observing this Constitution above any other is, because by that Time their Money generally is spent, and other Provisions, which they bring in Waggons from home, as Beer, Wine, Meat, Fowl, &c. Consum'd by the great Train of Guards and other Domesticks which they have with them.

Affairs treated of in the Grand Di­et. The Affairs generally treated of in the grand Diet, are either a King's Election or his Marriage; sending Ambassadours to Fo­reign Princes; declaring War or making Peace; imposing Taxes to carry on a War; making Alliances with other Princes; and all other State Affairs: Likewise all Suits of Law between private Persons, have their last Ap­peal from the Tribunals to the Diet: As may appear by the Difference adjusted by them between the Order of Malta and Prince De­metrius Wiesnowiski, who with-held Possession of what was given by his Brother-in-Law, the Duke of Ostrog, to this Order. Also in cri­minal Cases they judge and condemn as they did those who assassinated Gonczeski, Lieute­nant General of Lithuania, who had all their Heads cut off by Proceedings in this Court.

Who not to be present at Tryals for Treason. In Cases of High-Treason, the Poles say their King ought not to be present at the Tryal of any Traytor, and therefore the Marshal Lubomirski complain'd of John Casi­mir's condemning him in the Diet for Contu­macy. Also they do not generally admit the [Page 100] Nuncios at that Time, tho Stephen Batori, at a Diet held at Warsaw in the Year 1582. caus'd them to be present at the Tryal of Shorowski for Treason, to the End that they might all be Witnesses of the Injustice done him.

Naturali­zation and Manner of making Noble in Poland. 'Tis likewise in the Diet that Strangers are naturaliz'd, and Natives of the Country, who are not free-born, are made Gentlemen. Formerly no Person was capable of this Ho­nour, but such only as had serv'd in the Wars for a considerable Time, or else who had done some other good Service to the State; but now there needs no other Merit or good Qualities than to be rich enough to purchase the Favour of the Court, or the Protection of some great Man. They that pretend to the Indigenat, that is, to be made Noble, have no more to do than to apply themselves to the Nuncio-Marshal, who has the Power to put their Names into the Roll of those that desire to be made Polish Gentle­men. After which they are to give in a Note of their Genealogy, Names, Sir-names, Fa­mily, and Services; and to put their Arms in the Middle. When they have been receiv'd and accepted by the Diet, and have got their Patent sign'd, they are to take an Oath be­fore the same Marshal to be true and faithful to their King and Country, and whereof the Marshal afterwards gives them a Certifi­cate.

Restrain'd in some Respects not­with stand­ing. Nevertheless, tho the Candidate be de­clar'd Noble by the unanimous Consent of the three Orders, yet is he capable only of mean Employments, and to have a Vote among [Page 101] the Gentry, it not being in the Power of the King to bestow either on him or his Children any important Preferment till the third Gene­ration be past, and the Republick is thereby satisfy'd of their Fidelity, Loyalty, and Af­fection for their Country.

Great Con­course at the Diet. Tho' no other Person but the King, Senate, and Nuncios can have any Business or Vote in the Diet, yet vast Numbers of other People still flock thither. Also most commonly Fo­reign Princes choose then to send their Am­bassadors according to the Interest they have to maintain in the Diet. At this time like­wise the greatest Part of the Nobility, that have wherewithal to appear in any Sort of Grandeur, meet here together with their Wives and Children, tho' they have no other Business than to see and be seen. It is then their Sons get acquainted with others of the young Gentry, and often are marry'd to some of the young Ladies that come in like manner to be observ'd, and to get Husbands. In short, the Diet is a kind of general Ren­devouz of all the People of Quality in the Kingdom, as well Men and Women as Chil­dren, so that what City soever the Diet sits in, there are always Thirty Thousand, and sometimes Forty thousand Persons more than there us'd to be.

Provisions indifferent Planty not­withstand­ing. Nevertheless Provisions are not very scarce, by reason that every Gentleman almost brings his Necessaries along with him: Nay, the greatest Part send their Fuel and Provender for their Horses by the River Vistula to War­saw, when they come from that Side of the [Page 102] Country. There are likewise several Gen­tlemen that always come from Germany, Swe­den, and other adjacent Countries, to see this general Meeting, which is a fine Sight, and the only thing that is worth observing in Po­land.

Dangerous to walk a Nights. At this Time there is always such a Crowd of Soldiers, Heydukes, and Footmen in the Streets, that it is not safe to be abroad after Day shut in, for Fear of being rob'd or strip'd naked, as happens almost every Night, for the Polish Gentry give so very short Allowance to their Guards and Servants, a Dragoon having but fifteen Pence of our Money a Week, to maintain his Horse and himself, that they must be forc'd to rob, or be otherwise very industrious to live.

Visits at this Time unaccepta­ble. This is the Reason that Visits from these Gen­try are seldom acceptable to any Body. The great Senators, and more especially the Generals of the Army, come always so nu­merously attended, that the King himself, for greater Security, is always wont to in­crease his Guards at the Time of the Diet, otherwise he might be expos'd to the Insults of the Gentry, who often take a Liberty in the Diet to threaten and abuse him to his Face.

Great Guards of some Gen­try. Some of these Gentry have a Row, and sometimes two Rows of Guards that reach from their Houses to the King's Palace, where the Diet is kept.

Order of Session in the Diet. The Order of Session in the Diet is as follows. First the King sits on a Throne under a Cano­py, upon which are plac'd on each side the Arms [Page 103] of Poland and Lithuania: On the two Sides of the Throne stand the Ten Senator-Officers, whereof five for Poland are on the right Hand, and as many for Lithuania on the left. Then the Bishops sit in two Rows, whereof the first part are on the Right Hand with the Archbi­shop of Gnesna, and the other on the Left, with the Archbishop of Leopol: Below and behind the Bishops sit the Senators according to their respective Precedence; and next be­hind them stand the Deputies of the Provin­ces, all with their Caps off. All the Senators sit cover'd before the King in the Senate, tho' in all other Places they stand bare before him.

Members wear no di­stinguish­ing Habits. The Members of this Diet wear no particu­lar Habit of Ceremony or formal Distinction, but sit in the same Cloaths they usually wear at home, with their Swords or Sabres girt by their Sides. The same Custom is observ'd by all the Judges and Magistrates of the King­dom. ^* Sigismundus Augustus is said to have en­deavour'd to distinguish the Palatins from the Castellans, and those from the Nuncios, by different Habits, but this without Effect.

What proves E­quality a­mong Polish Gentry. Nothing proves the Equality of the Polish Gentry more than the Order of their Great and little Diets, for tho' all the Free-born are by them divided into the greater and Lesser, or rather Richer and Poorer Nobility, yet have they all the same Power in the Diets, and in making or breaking Constitutions, the Minor Gentry of every Province being supe­riour in Number, keep, by their Votes, and [Page 104] sometimes by their Scymitars, the greater Sort in Awe. Their Power is so extraordi­nary, by reason of their Number, that the great Gentry do in a manner depend upon the little, and that in so great a measure, that they are as it were affraid of them, and consequently are rather apt to oblige and court, than anger and displease them. They always do what lies in their Power to procure their Affections, saluting them by the familiar Titles of Mosci Panowie Bracia; that is, Gratioss Domini Fratres; which is the greatest Demonstration of real (or at least pretended) Friendship and Equality imaginable. These Titles being omitted in the Year 1667. there arose great Disturban­ces for want of them.

Intended Limitation of Votes like to pro­duce a bad Effect. King Casimir observing the great Abuses that spring from every little Gentleman's pretended Privilege to fit in the little Diets, order'd that none should have a Vote there, in electing a Deputy or Nuncio, but such only as had at least two Hundred Crowns a Year. whereupon the Palatin of Posnania offering to put this Law in Execution in his Province, was not only affronted, but also narrowly escap'd with his Life.

Deputies awe the King and Senate. These Deputies which depend on the free Nomination of the minor Gentry, in their respective Provinces, by their superiour Number, keep likewise the King and Senate in a great Dependance on them in the great Diet, since they can do nothing, nor con­clude the least Matter without the free Con­sent and Approbation of these Deputies.

[Page 805] Causes of Disunion in the Diet. This great Dependance of all the three Or­ders of the Republick on one another should, one would think, cause the greatest Union between them, and make them to have but one common Interest to agree in their Assemblies to all the Articles that tend to the publick Good; but on the contrary, Self-Interest, and the excessive Liberty and Privilege, not only of every Order of the Republick, but also of every individual Member of the Diet, produces another-guess Kind of Effect, for certainly there is no Assembly in Europe more subject to Disorders, more distracted by Ca­bals and Factions, and in fine, more corrupt­ed by Bribery and base Practices, which is the Reason that the Diet of Poland seldom concludes upon what they sit and deliberate about, tho' it should be of the greatest Im­portance imaginable.

Fomented by the Empire and France. All these Intrigues and Mismanagements are generally fomented by the two powerful Factions of the Houses of Austria and Bourbon. Every one knows the great Advantages the Emperours have had when they have main­tain'd a good Correspondence or Confedera­cy with the Poles against their common Ene­my the Turks and Tartars. And on the other Side, it is the French Interest to prevent and oppose such Correspondence, and endeavour to render all Means ineffectual which might otherwise favour the Emperor to enlarge his Dominions. Hereupon the Poles are so weaksighted, that they never reflect that neither the Emperour, nor the French King have any Kindness for them, but only make [Page 106] Use of them as Instruments, the better to accomplish their Designs.

What pro­motes fo­reign Fa­ctions. There is nothing that can promote or fa­vour Foreign Factions more than the unli­mited Prerogatives of each Member of the Diet, for the King, Senators, and Deputies have all equal Voices and equal Power in their Affirmative or Negative Votes; and Affairs are not concluded or agreed upon by Plurality of Voices, but universal Consent of all the three Orders, and the free Approba­tion of every Member of the Diet in particu­lar; so that if but one Person only, who has a lawful Vote, thinks fit to refuse his Consent to what all the rest have agreed to, he alone can interrupt their Proceedings, and annihilate their Suffrages: Nay, what is yet more extravagant, if, for Example, there were Thirty Articles or Bills to pass, and they all unanimously agreed to Nine and Twenty, yet if but one Deputy disapprov'd of the Thirtieth, not only that, but also the other Nine and Twenty are void and of no Force; and this because all the Articles at first propos'd have not pass'd.

Members not to give Reason for Dissent to any Bill. Hence say they, the Diet can make no Law without its having been concluded by their Concludere Comitia, or Breaking up of the Di­et. They understand likewise, that all the Points propos'd are to be unanimously agreed upon, which nevertheless happens but very seldom; for most commonly some Factious Person or other, having perhaps been brib'd or otherwise byass'd, will protest against their Proceedings, and who consequently oftentimes prefers his own private Interest to the publick [Page 107] Good of his Country. Moreover their Li­berty extends so far, that this corrupted Member is not oblig'd by Law, to give any Reason for his said Refusal, but is only to say after their usual Manner, Nie pos Volam; It is not my Pleasure that it shall be so. Where­upon he immediately withdraws from out of the Diet, and most commonly retires into the Country for Fear of being either kill'd or abus'd (as it often happens such People are) by some desperate Member of the Diet.

Easie Mat­ter to an­nul the Pro­jects of the Diet. Thns SIR, you may plainly perceive how easie a Matter it is for any Foreign Prince to interrupt all the Projects of this Diet, if they seem in any wise to move against his Inte­rest. If Poland be in Peace, and has a mind to declare War against any Nation contrary to the French Interest, the French Pistoles can easily find some Senator or Deputy to oppose this Design. Or if by the Heat and Resolu­tion of some great Men, War be denounc'd, the French King can never fail of somebody to break their Ways and Means of raising Mo­ney to carry it on, as he effectually did in the War the late King had against the Turks and Tartars. Then on the other side, if the Poles are actually in War with the Turks and Tar­tars, which is for the Emperours Interest, the Court of Vienna will never want some Christianly dispos'd Bishop, or some other Member to perswade or oblige the Diet to continue the War as long as it agrees with the Affairs of the House of Austria, and this un­der Pretence of serving God and the Aposto­lick See. This appears sufficiently in this pre­sent [Page 108] War, for the Poles having been ex­treamly fatigu'd and impoverish'd by the continu'd and fatal Interruptions of the Tar­tars for near these fifteen Years, do all no doubt wish for a Peace, and have propos'd it in every Diet for several Years, ever since the Siege of Vienna: But notwithstanding either thro their own Disorders, or the Austrian Faction, they could never yet accomplish their Design. Thus the Austrian Party keeps them in a tedious War, and the French prevents them from carrying it on with Vi­gour, insomuch that between these two, that Nation is almost ruin'd, since on one Side they are hinder'd from making Peace to remedy the prodigious Desolations made upon them; and on the other, prevented from raising Money sufficient to carry the War into the Country of their Inva­ders.

Great Free­dom of Speech there. Every Member of the Diet, after having obtain'd Leave of their Marshal, who can only stop their Mouths, has a Right to speak and harangue there as long as he plea­ses: Nay, can say what he will, for they often abuse one another, and affront their King to his Face, branding him with the infamous Ti­tles of Perjur'd, Ʋnjust, and the like. They often likewise threaten both him and his Chil­dren, when perhaps they have the least Rea­son. The Occasion of this is generally in that they come drunk into the Diet▪ and con­sequently talk only as the Spirit moves, ei­ther good or bad. Nay, you shall have some of these Fuddle-caps talk Nonsense for two or three Hours together, trespassing on the [Page 109] Patience of the soberer Sort with a railing, carping, injurious, and ill digested Dis­course, without any bodies ever daring to interrupt them, tho' they spin it out never so long, for if the Marshal himself should then presume to bid 'em hold their Tongues, they would infallibly dissolve the Diet, by prote­sting against the Proceedings thereof; so that the prudenter Way is always to hear them out, and moreover, to shew no Dislike to the impertinent Speeches they have made.

Unhappy State of the Polish Go­vernment. No body but sees the unhappy State of the Government of Poland; that their Constitu­tions and Privileges are most pernicious; that the unlimited and absolute Liberty of each Member makes all the Republick Slaves, either to the Whimsy or factious Obstinacy of one particular Man; for can there be any thing more unreasonable than that after all the Senators and Deputies have come from most remote Provinces with excessive Ex­pence, to the Diet, and labour'd jointly with the King to conclude Matters for the common Benefit of the Nation, it should be in the Power of one disaffected or corrupted Person, without giving any farther Reason than his own Pleasure, to annul the Proceedings of the rest, and to dissolve the Diet at a Juncture especially, when there is the greatest Occasion for their Concurrence?

Thus SIR, you may perceive that Affairs of the greatest Consequence depend not only on the prudent Deliberations of sober Men, [Page 110] but also on the whimsical Humours of the senseless or deprav'd. This excessive Liber­ty of every private Man shews that both the Nation and the Diet have none at all.

Policy of concluding Matters by unanimous Consent. This Constitution of concluding Matters in the Diet, rather by universal Consent than Plurality of Voices, was establish'd to de­prive their Kings of all Means and Opportu­nities of ever becoming absolute, for they imagin'd it was morally impossible (as it re­ally is) that whatever Interest or Authority the King might get in the Country, that he should ever so far prevail as to bring all the Members of the Diet (for he might have the Majority) to consent to any Article or Bill which might any wise be injurious to the Na­tion. But on the other hand, observing the many bad Consequences that usually attend, and must still necessarily follow, such Consti­tutions, they once propos'd to decide their Af­fairs by the two Thirds of the Voices, yet which they could never agree in, by reason that the greatest Part of them being over­fond of their Liberties, were loath by these means to consent to part with them; and so that Proposal had no Effect.

Wonderful how the Po­lish Govern­ment can subsist. SIR, you may have just Reason to admire how the Polish Nation could, for above a Thousand Years, subsist with such bad Con­stitutions, and still possess, not only a vast Kingdom, but also hitherto enjoy their Freedom and Liberties in their utmost Force and Extent. 'Tis wonderful also that far from losing or limiting any of their Prerogatives, [Page 111] they rather enlarge and encrease 'em as often as they elect their Kings. Nay, considering the Power of their King; the absolute Pre­rogative every Gentleman has in his own Lands, in a manner above the Laws; the Turbulency of their Diets; and the small Ob­ligation the Officers think they lie under to perform their several Duties, the Poles them­selves have own'd it to be no less than a Mi­riacle that they should have subsisted so long, and Dr. Connor says, he has often heard them say, that their Preservation was to be attributed to God alone, that protected 'em to be the invinci­ble Bulwark of Europe against the Progress of the common Enemies of Christendom, the Turks and Tartars.

Must al­ways flou­rish for se­veral Rea­sons. Here we need not have Recourse to any pe­culiar Providence bestow'd by God on the Poles, since by his own ordinary Concourse to all natural Causes, we may easily collect that the Polish Nation could not but subsist hi­therto only, but likewise must in all Proba­bility last as long as any Kingdom in Europe, and this for several Reasons.

I. Reason. First, Because, tho' the King's Power is li­mited by the Law, his Credit and Authority nevertheless is so great, that he can dispose the Affairs in the Diet as he pleases, especial­ly where they tend to the publick Good of the Kingdom; for very few, if any at all, will venture to protest against any Proceed­ings there, that are for the Interest of the Nation, unless they be supported by a good Party of Senators and Deputies, and this be­cause [Page 112] it is not only infamous and scandalous to his Person, but also prejudicial to his Po­sterity that breaks up a Diet; as also not a little dangerous to his Life, to irritate and disobey so powerful a Body; for they are commonly very liberal in their Passion, of bestowing several Slashes of a Scymitar on any ill-natur'd corrupted Member that opposes the Interest of his Country, tho' in Reality he has the Law on his Side. It is certain therefore that where any Person withstands the rest in the Diet, it is either because the King has not sufficiently employ'd his Au­thority to pacifie him, or Policy to win him with a small Present; or else by reason that he does not care they should agree; or last­ly, because there is a considerable Party of Senators and Deputies that support, or rather employ him to protest against an Act that they do not think for their Interest to let pass. It is a common Practice, where any of the Members of the Senate have any particu­lar Advantage, by opposing the Diets Pro­ceedings, not to expose themselves either to the Hatred or Anger of that numerous Body, but rather to sacrifice some private Deputy to their Fury, who for a small Summ of Money will come into the Diet and declare in plain Terms, without any manner of Reason, that it is not his Pleasure that such a Matter, then in Agitation, should pass. Whereupon he imme­diately withdraws, if he can, into the Coun­try for Security. But generally these Opposi­tions are never practis'd where the publick Interest of the Nation is concern'd, as ap­pears in the raising the last Siege of Vienna [Page 113] by the Turks; where the Poles finding that the Loss of that City would turn be very much to their Prejudice, march'd directly under their then reigning King, John III. to the Relief of it, which they soon effected to their im­mortal Honour and Glory. 'Tis true, that it is not an easie Matter to bring the Poles into the Field; but when once they are got together into a considerable Body, their Courage and undaunted Resolutions render them invincible.

II. Reason. Secondly, The Order of their Govern­ment, and their Courage and Resolution does not so much contribute towards their Preservation, as the Envy and Jealousies of their Neighbours among themselves; for when the late King of Sueden, and Elector of Brandenbourg made War with Poland, the Tartars came to assist the Poles, and at the same Time the King of Denmark made a consi­derable Diversion in Suedeland. When the Tartars likewise declare War against Poland, most commonly either the Emperour or Mos­covite come to its Relief; or else make great Diversions on their Sides; for as it is the Interest of the Princes their Neighbours, not to let them grow to that exorbitant Power which they had formerly; so it is not at all for their Benefit to let them perish; for whoever could be able to conquer Poland, and unite it to his own Dominions, would quick­ly be too powerful for all the rest.

III. Reason. Thirdly, The Poles, besides this, can the easier conserve their Dominions by reason [Page 114] that they have no strong Forts or Castles to shelter their Enemies, where they happen to make any Progress in their Country; yet I verily believe that an Army of fifty Thou­sand well-disciplin'd Men would at present conquer the whole Kingdom of Poland, tho' at the same Time I am of Opinion that an Hundred Thousand could not be able to keep it. Carolus Custavus, King of Sueden, with about Forty Thousand Men, entirely subdu'd Poland in less than two Years Time, yet when he began to encroach too much up­on their Constitutions and Liberties, the Po­lish Gentry join'd unanimously together, and soon drove the Suedes out of the Kingdom. The Tartars in numerous Bodies make fre­quent Incursions into this open Country, but still as soon as they have loaded themselves with their Booty, they make all possible Haste away. The Loss of Caminiec makes the Poles admire at their own Policy in ha­ving no strong Towns, for they say, had not that been so well fortify'd, it had not serv'd for Shelter to a strong Garrison of Turks and Tartars at their Doors. Insomuch that it may be observ'd that Forts and Ca­stles which we count our greatest Security, would inevitably be the Ruine of the Poles; they being not skill'd in besieging Towns, and moreover, having no good Artillery, In­geniers, Ammunition, or other Necessaries, since they never were, nor ever will be able to retake Caminiec, tho it is a Place of no ex­traordinary Strength, and for my Part I ve­rily believe that if it should be surrender'd to them, they would quickly rase and demo­lish it.

[Page 115] Assemblys of the Con­vocation and Synods in Poland. SIR, Having thus far treated only of the Diet or Parliament of Poland, I will now proceed to present you with a cursory Ac­count of its other Assemblies and Courts of Justice, and therefore must acquaint you, that besides the Grand Diet and Senate, the Clergy there have both a general Convocati­on and two Provincial Synods; but which are wholly regulated and aw'd by the Ponti­fical Chair. I may take notice that the Arch­bishop of Leopol, tho he can call and hold his Synod a-part, yet is he altogether subject in Spirituals to the Archbishop of Gnesna, or Primate of Poland. The general Convocati­on is for the most part conven'd every third Year at Petricovia, Lanschet, or Lowitz, whereof the minor Clergy, as in England, are admitted by their Deputies or Representa­tives.

The Kaptur. Court. As for Cours of Justice, the Poles have one that is wholly peculiar to the Interregnum, which they call the Kaptur. This is two­fold, either general, which sits during the Interregnum, to prevent Disorders, and which has Power over Life and Death: Or particular, in the several Palatinates of the Kingdom. The Judges of the former are chosen out of the Prime Nobility, and those of the latter out of the Nobility in general of every Palatinate, at the several particular Conventions, and in the Beginning of every Interregnum. All these Courts cease three Weeks before the Assembly for Election meets, and after the Election, they sit again to the very Day of the Coronation.

[Page 116] Ecclesiasti­cal Courts and their Jurisdicti­on. The other Courts of Justice in Poland are either Ecclesiastical, Civil or Military. The Ecclesiastical, as in other Nations, are alto­gether in the hands of the Bishops, who have Each their Chancellor, Register, &c. from whom Appeals may be made to the Arch­bishops; and even from the Archbishop of Leopol to him of Gnesna, who is the Popes Legat Born, and Primate and Metropolitan of all Poland: Nevertheless, from him Ap­peals lye to the See of Rome. These Judge according to the Canons and Customs of the Church; and the Civil Magistrates are ob­lig'd to be Assisting to them in the Execution of their Sentences as often as they shall be so requir'd.

Court of Nuncia­ture. To the Ecclesiastical Courts belongs the Court of Nunciature held by the Popes Nuncio, for that purpose always residing in Poland. However, before he can have any Jurisdicti­on, he must have presented the King and the Principal Ministers of State, with the Apo­stolic Brief of his Nunciature.

Gentry's Civil Courts. The Civil Jurisdiction is divided among divers sorts of Judges, and belongs to the Com­monalty as well as Gentry. Some of these determine Causes exempt from Appeals, and others cannot.

High Tri­bunals. Those from whom there lies no Appeal are the three High-Tribunals instituted by Ste­phen Batori, the Judges whereof are all Gentry. Two of these Tribunals are for the Kingdom, and one for the Great Dutchy. Those for the Kingdom keep their Session Six Months at Petricovia in Low- Poland; and the other Six at Lublin in High- Poland: That for the Great [Page 117] Dutchy is alternatively one year at Vilna, and another either at Novogrodec or Minski. They all consist of so many Judges both Ecclesiasti­cal and Civil, chosen out of every Palatinate, the former once in four years, and the latter once in two. Judgment is pronounced here by Plurality of Voices: but where Matters are purely Ecclesiastical, there ought to be as many of the Clergy as the Laity. The Causes here are heard in Order; for three days are allow'd to enter all that come; and whatever are not enter'd within that time cannot be ad­judg'd that sitting. A Man that has a Trial in these Courts, may be said to have all the Nation for his Judges, Deputies both Ecclesi­astical and Temporal being sent thither for that purpose from all Parts of the King­dom.

The Senate and Green-Cloth. The Senate also Judges of Civil or Crimi­nal Matters without Appeal: As do likewise the Great- Marshals in all Cases relating to the King's Officers; And the Great Chancel­lors in matters of Appeal to the Court which they have only Cognisance of. But the Marshal's Jurisdiction extends over all Mer­chants, and Strangers; both who find but little Justice done them in Poland when they have occasion for it.

Exchequer Courts. Also there are two Exchequer Courts for the Revenue, one held at Radom in High- Poland, and the other at Vilna. These Courts seldom sit above a Fortnight or Three Weeks.

Gentry-Courts not free from Appeal. Those that are not exempt from Appeals, are the Courts of the Gentry and Commo­nalty in every Palatinate; which are by no means to have any of the Clergy for Judges. [Page 118] Those for the Gentry are either the Courts of Land-Judicature, or those of the Starostas, and are more, or fewer in number, accord­ing to the Extent of the Palatinate where they are held.

Of Land-Judicature with its Judges. The Courts of Land-Judicature have one Judge, an Associate, and a Natory, or Head-Clerk to Try Causes, and Administer all Civil Ju­stice; in some Places four, in others six times a year; and in others once a Month. The Courseof these Courts can only be interrupted by the Death of any of their Judges, by the Diet, or by the general Meeting of the Pala­tines and Magistrates; which last is every Au­tumn, to hear Appeals from Inferiour Courts. The Towns where the Gentry sit are in great number; and it must be observ'd, that none who have Lands or Goods within each Juris­diction, can be made to Appear at a Court where they have none.

Vice-Cham­berlains Court. The immediate Appeal from these Courts is to the Vice-Chamberlain of the Palatinate, who either by himself or his Deputy, the Chamberlain of that District, restores all that have been Dispossess'd, and ascertains all Bounds and Limits of Lands. This is as it were his whole Jurisdiction. But where there is any Contest between the King and any of the Gentry in this Kind, then at their re­quest Commissio­ners to take Appeals.Commissioners are appointed out of the Senate to inspect the matter disputed, and to do Justice therein. Likewise where the Difference is between the King and a Clergy­man, Commissioners are order'd; but there the Bishop of the Diocess Claims the Nomina­tion of one or more of them. When any of the [Page 119] Officers of the Courts of Land-Judicature die, the King cannot Name others, till the District to which they belong'd, have chosen Four out of the House-keepers; but then he may pitch upon One for each Election. This Office being once obtain'd, it cannot be forfeited but by a Higher Promotion, or Male Admi­nistration.

Gentries Criminal Courts. The other Courts for the Gentry are those that take cognizance of Criminal Cases, whereof there is one only in every Starosta­ship, call'd Sudy Grodskie: Where either the Starosta himself, or his Lieutenant-Criminal, Administers Justice in his Castle, or some other publick Place, at least every Six Weeks. He likewise has Cognisance of Civil Causes be­tween such as have no Lands, and such For­reigners as come to Trade here. Process in Cri­minal Cases is to be serv'd here a Fortnight, and in Civil, a Week before the Court sits.

Starostas Power and Office. He is also the Executive Minister of all Sentences pronounc'd, and likewise a sole Conservator of the Peace within his Terri­tories. He is oblig'd by himself or his Offi­cers, to see all Publick Executions perform'd.

The Courts of the Commonalty are either in Cities or Villages.

Courts of Commonal­ty in Cities. In Cities Justice is Administred by the Sca­bins, Town-Hall, or Judg-Advocate. The Scabins have cognisance of all Capital Offen­ces, and Criminal Matters, the Town-Hall of all Civil Cases; to which likewise the Gen­try are subject; and the Judg-Advocate of Offences committed by Soldiers. Civil Mat­ters of small Moment are determin'd solely by the Governour of the City, but which are [Page 120] subject to Appeal to the Town-Hall, and thence to the King.

In Villages. In Villages the Commonalty are subject to Scabins, being the Kings Officers, and to Scul­tets or Peculiar Lords; from which last lies no Appeal. Here Justice is almost Arbitrary, except in Criminal Cases. The Scultets are Hereditary Judges. The Execution of all Sentences in Cities and Towns, is in the hands of its own Magistrates, though in some cases they are forc'd to beg Assistance from the Starostas.

Officers and Magi­strates of Plebeian Courts. The Officers and Magistrates of the Ple­beian Courts are some nam'd by their Pecu­liar Lords, and some Elected by their Fellow Citizens, except in Cracow only, where the Palatine has a Right of Choosing the Magi­strates, though he has not the same Power to dis-place them after they are once chosen; for they are to continue their Office for Life, unless they forfeit it by Infamy or Inability.

Out of the XXIV (composing the Council or Senate of Cracow) the Palatine every year deputes Eight with the Title and Power of Presidents. He also Names the Judge and Scabins by the Magdeburg Laws, though these in other Cities are chosen by the Council. The Scultets or Hereditary Judges, cannot be remov'd but in extraordinary Cases.

[Page 121] [...] Pro­fits. The Profits of all Offices are but very small and scarce any certain, the Poles esteeming the Honour of enjoying them sufficient Re­compence: Nevertheless they have all Sala­ries and Perquisites, though inconsiderable.

Military Jurisdicti­on. The Military Jurisdiction of Poland is wholly in the hands of the King, or his Ge­nerals, although the Palatines and Castellans who generally Accompany his Majesty to the Wars, retain their Authority over their re­spective Inferiours; but where those are Re­fractory, a Court-Marshal Adjusts the De­bate.

Origin, Progress, and present State of Laws. As for the Laws of Poland, it is on all hands agreed, that it had none till the time of Casimir the Great, and then but very few made by him; altho it is certain, that the Poles hadlong before been Christians, and were well enough vers'd in the Human-Learning, yet was there never any Law or Statute of any Prince com­mitted to Writing; but that People were contented to be govern'd by the Customs and Manners of their Ancestors, handed down to them from Father to Son. Casimir III. there­fore (call'd the Great from his prudent Ad­ministration) observing the disadvantages his Kingdom labour'd under by the Germans, who then frequently came into Poland on ac­count of Trade, receiv'd the Saxon Laws (now call'd Magdeburg-Laws, from the City of Saxony whence they were taken) by which Poland is at this day principally govern'd, al­though the Gentry have many peculiar Cu­stoms, and some Statutes which have been [Page 122] since made: And which in the Time of Sigis­mundus Augustus, being compiled into one Volume by Learned Men, were entitled the Statutes of the Kingdom; and since (some having been Approv'd and Augmented, and others Chang'd and Alter'd in several Diets) have obtain'd the Name of Constitutions of Po­land; to which nevertheless all that Kingdom is not Subject, Lithuania and Volhynia obser­ving its own Laws. Prussia likewise, both Regal and Ducal, has a Municipal Law of its own, commonly stil'd the Law of Culm; from which notwithstanding Three Cities are Ex­empt, viz. Elbing, Bransberg, and Fraumberg, all which make use of the Laws of Lansberg.

Punish­ments in Poland. The Punishments in Poland are various, and differ only according to the Quality of the Crimes, and not of the Persons; for a Thief is to be hang'd of what degree soever he be, and Capital Offenders of all other Kinds and Qualities are to be Beheaded, ex­cept in Notorious Villanies, where the Of­fender is commonly broke on the Wheel, or else Tortur'd by cutting off two Thongs, or long Pieces out of the Skin of his Back. A Nobleman is sometimes punish'd by forfeit­ing half his Estate to the King, and the rest to an Informer; and sometimes by Imprison­ment only.

Manner of chastising Servants. Masters also have a Power of Chastising their Servants; which they do after this man­ner: If the Servant they are about to Punish be a Polish Gentleman, then they make him lye down on his Belly on a Carpet spread on [Page 123] the Ground, or upon a Stool, when another Gentleman-Servant lays him on unmercifully on the Back, with a Rope or Stick, giving him as many Blows and Lashes, as the Master who is then present, orders. After which, he that is beaten embraces the Knees of him that had commanded him to be Beat, and sa­lutes him with the good-natur'd Title of Be­nefactor. This Discipline seems a little too severe; but however, the Temper of these People makes it necessary. The Peasant-Ser­vants are punish'd after the same manner, only with this difference, that they have no Carpet spread under them. Some of the for­mer sort think it an Honour to be so lash'd; which Honour they always receive liberally as often as they deserve it.

No Disgrace to the Gen­ty to be thus beat. This Custom of the Poles in punishing their Gentlemen-Servants so rigidly, ought not much to be wonder'd at, if it be consider'd, that they may serve in the meanest Offices without derogating from the Nobility of their Birth, or incapacitating themselves for the Highest Preferments. For (says Haute­ville) I have known some, who from being Foot­boys to great Lords, and Drummers in a Compa­ny of Dragoons, have been advanc'd to the Dig­nity of SENATORS. Also in general, Nothing debases Nobility in this Country, but a Handicraft or Mechanic Employment.

This SIR, is all that I could meet with by various Reading, relating to the Legislative and Executive Justice in Poland; and which, though not capable to pass your Censure with [Page 124] the Name of a Regular Composition, I hope may obtain Effects of your Candour under the Regretted Title of a hasty Compilation.

LETTER IV.
To the Right Honourable JOHN, Earl of Marlborough, Governour to his Highness the Duke of Glocester.

TO whom can this Letter, which treats of the Election of a King, more properly address it self than to your Lordship, who has lately been pitch'd upon by the wisest of Monarchs, to be Governour to the presumptive Heir of his Crown? No Doubt his Majesty saw those united Qualifications in you, which were but to be singly met with in all others, and which moreover could not but be requir'd to copy a successor from so great an Original as [Page 126] himself. These Considerations, My Lord, have embolden'd me to present your Lord­ship with this imperfect Account, but which, I hope, in regard it has been extracted from so many Volumes, may favourably pass your discerning Censure, tho it must not in the least pretend to deserve your Approbation.

My LORD,

Crown va­cant has many ways. The Crown of Poland may be vacant four Ways, for either the King abdicates volunta­rily, and publickly, like John Casimir; is de­pos'd for his Vices, as Locticus was; runs out of the Kingdom as Henry III. of France did; or dies, which is the ordinary Cause of an Inter-regnum.

Diet sum­mon'd When the Crown is once become vacant, the Archbishop of Gnesna being the first Se­nator of the Kingdom, is the Prime Mini­ster, and hath the same Authority as the King had, most of the Crown Revenues be­ing invested likewise in him, during the Inter­regnum. After the King's Death, he issues out circular Letters to all the Provinces, to acquaint them therewith, and to command their several Officers to make Publicati­on of the Inter-regnum, as likewise to sum­mon a general Convocation of the Gentry to meet at Warsaw at a Time prefix'd.

Proceedings in little Diets be­fore Grand Session. Before this general Meeting, they meet at the Little Diets, where Care is taken to se­cure the Roads from Thieves, and to set strong Guards every where on the Frontiers, to oppose an invading Enemy. Next, Spies [Page 127] are sent into all Neighbouring Kingdoms, to have Intelligence of what they design or do. Then all Persons are prohibited either to go out or come into the Kingdom during the In­terregnum, as likewise to carry any Horses out of it. All foreign Letters directed to any Members of the Senate are intercepted; All the High-ways are block'd up with Trees fell'd down, and Ambuscades are plac'd about them: None of the Senate, nor no Foreigners are permitted to write to the Army: All the Gentry are commanded to have every thing in Readiness for publick Defence: The common Use of Guns is forbidden, Ta­verns are shut up, and Concerts of Musick si­lenc'd. Then they proceed to institute the Court call'd Kaptur, treated of before.

Who offici­ates where no Inter­regnum. This Diet consists of the Archbishop of Gnesna, who represents the King's Person, and the other Senators, together with the Deputies of the Provinces. ^*In Case there is no Archbishop of Gnesna when the King dies, the Office of Inter-Rex comes to the Bi­shop of Cujavia, and next to the Bishop of Posnan, and so to the rest of the Bishops of Lower Poland, which in this Respect is pre­ferr'd to the Higher, tho' in nothing else. Yet however they may grant away their Pow­er, as they did in the Inter-Regnum before the Election of the late King, when the Bishop of Cracow officiated during the whole Inter­regnum, by a common Consent of those Bi­shops.

[Page 128] First Pro­ceedings. ^*Some of the Senators and Deputies are dispatch'd to the Generals of the Army, to remain with them, and to be assisting to them with their Counsel in the Affairs of the War. Some Senators and Deputies likewise are appointed to inspect the Crown-Treasure deposited in the Castle of Cracow, and to take an Inventory thereof, which they are after­wards to report to the Diet. This Treasure is commonly committed to the Custody of eight Senators, who are the Castellan of Cra­cow, the Palatins of Cracovia, Posnania, Vil­na, Sendomir, Kalisch, and Troki; together with the Treasurer of the Kingdom, each having his particular Seal and Key, and therefore none to act without the unanimous Consent of all. Also Commissioners are sent to inform themselves of the King's Crown-Revenue, which they are likewise to make their Report of, during this Session, and till a new King be proclaim'd, the Republick ^†claims the Title of Most Serene from all Sovereign Princes and Crown'd Heads, altho' Hautaville says, he has observ'd, that the King of France, writing to this Di­et of Election, has not faluted them with that Title, but only express'd himself in these Terms; To our dearest and well beloved Friends and Allies, the States of the Kingdom of Poland, and Great Dutchy of Lithua­nia.

[Page 129] Courts of Justice cease except two. Whilst this Diet sits (which by the Laws is not to be above a Fortnight without Proro­gation) and from the Time of the Circular Letters, to the Conclusion of the Diet of Election; all Courts of Justice cease, except only that of the Marshal's, which continues as before, and a Court establish'd to prevent Disorders in the Diet. As for all private Af­fairs, and Suits of Law, they are delay'd till after the new King's Coronation. The Pro­ceedings in this Diet are much of the same Nature with those in other Diets.

Foreign Ministers on this Oc­casion. Most Crown'd Heads, and other Christian Princes, send Ambassadours to this Election, and more especially the Emperour and King of France. The Pope also always sends his Nuncio to take care that the Election should fall upon a profess'd Catholick, and one that is in the Interest of the See of Rome. The Emperour and French King always raise great Factions to promote their several Inte­rests.

Notifie their Arri­val and how re­ceiv'd. Before any Ambassadours arrive, they are to send Notice of their coming to the Archbi­shop of Gnesna, who is to appoint them Lodg­ings at a Distance from the City, and to as­sign them a Polish Gentleman, whose Business is rather to observe their Conduct, and to acquaint the Diet therewith, than to do them either any Service or Honour. But however these Rules are but seldom observ'd, for Princes Ambassadours now generally live publickly at Warsaw. A Gentleman, 'tis [Page 130] true, is still appointed to be always with them, whose chiefest Business is to prevent their corrupting any with Money; but this Precaution is notwithstanding now become useless, since Avarice bears so great a Sway in Poland, that even the Fidelity which a Po­lish Gentleman ows his Country, cannot withstand the Charms of a Thousand Crowns.

Embassa­dors from the Repub­lick. Embassadors are not only receiv'd from Foreign Princes, and their Masters Letters publickly read; but also Polish Ministers are sent at this Time from the Republick to all Neighbouring States, to answer their Embas­sies, and to request their Amity. Here it may be observ'd, that all Embassadours or Envoys, who have had Audience of Leave be­fore the late King's Death, are desir'd to de­part within eight Days.

Caution to foreign Ministers. Embassadors from foreign Courts must take especial Care to secure the Diet in gene­ral, since the bare disobliging of one particu­lar Member may render them for ever inca­pable of bringing their Designs about, as it hapned in the Election of Michael Wiesnowiski, where the true Reason of the Duke of New­burg's being excluded, was the Quarrel with the Chancellor Patz: Nevertheless it must be acknowledg'd that that Election was tumul­tuary, the Nobility had not their free Votes, and that they were in a manner hurried away by the Violence of the Multitude, which was so great, that Prasmowski, then Primate, was forc'd to proclaim him, tho' he knew [Page 131] that the Republick at that Juncture had need of both a rich and valiant King, neither of which that Prince could in the least pretend to be. He was no sooner proclaim'd, but the Chancellor began to insinuate that he ow'd his Crown to him, nor was it a difficult Task for him to impose on a Prince who was easily govern'd, and who had always shewn more good Nature than Judgment.

Deputies Business af­ter this Di­et. After the Diet of Convocation ended, the Nuncios and Deputies retire to their several Countries, where they acquaint the Gentry, being a second Time assembled in their Lit­tle Diets, of the Proceedings in this general Convocation, and particularly of the Day as­sign'd for the Election; Whereupon the Gentry immediately begin to consult about what is proper to be propos'd in the Diet of Election, and they proceed to choose new Deputies. In Prussia the Bishop of Varmia being sole Lord Lieutenant, summons all these little Diets by his Mandates.

Diet of E­lection.] The general Diet for the Election of a King, was formerly held at Petricovia, but since the joining of the Kingdom with the Great Dutchy, is always held in an open Field half a League from Warsaw, and near the Village of Vola, and is not to continue by the Laws above six Weeks. The Crown-Treasurer, at the Charges of the Republick, builds there a large Booth or Hall with Boards, not unlike Booths in our Bartholomew Fair: The Name the Poles give to this Place, [Page 132] is ^* Szopa, signifying a cover'd Room against the Injuries of Weather. It has but three Doors to go in at, and they fortifie it round with a broad and deep Ditch. When this Place is thus finish'd by the Care of the aforesaid Of­ficer, and the Day fix'd for the Diets convening is arriv'd, the Senators and Nobility go in great Order to St. John's Church at Warsaw, where they pray God to assist them in the Election of a King, who may have all the Qualities necessary to defend the Church, and protect the Republick. Then they go to wait on the Queen Dowager, to condole the Death of the deceas'd King her Husband, the Primate speak­ing for the Senate, and the last Nuncio-Marshal for the Deputies, who are then answer'd in the Queen's Name by her Chancellor. After which they march to the Szopa, where the Nobility elect their Marshal or Speaker by Majority of Votes, who after being chosen, takes the usual Oath, which runs thus, That he will discharge his Office faithfully, receive no Bribes, keep private Correspondence with none of the Competitors, and will not subscribe a Schedule of a free Election without the Knowledge and Ap­probation of the Republick. After this he goes to wait on the Senators for their Approbation. It must be understood that the Senators only sit in the Szopa, for the Deputies have their Session in the open Field, which they call their ^† Rota Equestris.

[Page 133] First Pro­ceedings therein. The first thing that the Senators and Nun­cios, or deputed Gentry, do in this Diet, af­ter establishing of the Kaptur, is to take a mutual Oath on their Knees, administred by the Prmate, to a strict Union and Intelligence among themselves for the common Interest of the Nation: Next, not to acknowledge any for their King, but him that is lawfully elected by the unanimous Consent and who must withal swear to preserve inviolable, the Rights and Privileges of the Republick; and they moreover promise mutually, that he who will act otherwise, shall be deem'd and declar'd an Enemy to his Country. Like­wise they reciprocally promise not to give their Voices for an Election, nor to enter in­to any Agreement with any of the Candidates or their Embassadors, till all the Irregularities or Disorders, either in the Kingdom or the Great Dutchy, be first consider'd and re­dress'd. They annul all the Decrees of the Tribunals, and even the Statutes of Kings that are found to entrench on their Liberties: They declare that all other Judgments pro­nounc'd before the Publication of the Inter­regnum, shall be valid: They set up a new Court of Justice call'd Kaptur, which is to Defend the Country, Coin Money, Raise Soldiers, and for Maintaining of the Laws. They give Orders that no Body shall come to the Diet with Fire-Arms, nor bring any Strangers along with them: They cause the Generals to take on Oath before Commissio­ners to discharge the Trust repos'd in them, faithfully to employ their Forces against the [Page 134] Enemies of the Republick, and to defend the Frontiers, thereby to secure the Honour and Liberties of the Kingdom. They oblige them also to swear to assert the publick In­terest in Case of Sedition or Rebellion, to restrain Soldiers from injuring any Person, to receive Money neither from Clergy nor Laity, and to prevent their Soldiers from receiving any. And lastly, they forbid them to advance with their Troops into the Heart of the Kingdom, and more especially to come ^*near the Diet for Fear of being forc'd to an Election against their free Will: And providing the Republick should be attack'd by such a Force, as the Army were not strong enough to resist, then they declare, that from that very Minute they summon all the Nobility to meet together without Delay, at the Time and Place which the Primate and his Council shall appoint; that the Review of the Soldiers rais'd in general by the Re­publick, or in particular by the Palatinaetes, shall be made in the Camp; that each Palati­nate shall take care to pay its own Troops, and not disband any but such as the general Diet shall think fit to dismiss. They forbid the Treasurers of the Crown or Great Dutchy, to give out any Money without Knowledge and Approbation of the Archbi­shop and his Council, but only for Payment of the Troops of the Republick: They order that skilful and honest Persons shall be sent to visit the Salt-Works, and to regulate all Re­parations that shall be found necessary there; [Page 135] and in the last Place, that the Deputies of cer­tain Cities shall not be admitted to the Diet, till they have sufficiently prov'd their Right to come thither. In short, the Poles in this Diet take all the Measures and Care imagina­ble to secure their Frontiers, maintain the Kingdom in Peace and Quietness, to settle a good Intelligence among themselves; and lastly, to prevent Bribery or any private In­terest in any of the Members of the Diet that might tend to hinder a free and unanimous Election.

Exorbitan­cies exa­min'd, and Embassa­dors re­ceiv'd. Matters being thus dispos'd, they immedi­ately proceed to the Election, examining first, the Exorbitances, that is to say, the Disorders and Excesses committed during the last Reign, to the end that they may prevent the like for the future. These Exorbitances are not examin'd by the whole Session, either of the Senators or Deputies, but by a certain Number assign'd out of both, who sit a-Mornings in the Castle of Warsaw. Then the Diet gives Audience to the Ambassadors, both of those Princes that pretend to the Crown, and those that recommend others to it, sending first, a great Train of Coaches to wait on them to the Rota Eque­stris, whither it must be understood that on this Occasion the Senate goes.

When these Embassadors are thus sent for, the Pope's Nuncio is always preferr'd, then comes the Emperour's Embassador, next the French, and after these the Spanish: But since the Diet of Election conven'd at Warsaw after the Death of Sigismundus Augustus, [Page 136] when the Spanish Embassador demanded Audi­ence before the King of France, who not­withstanding was preferr'd, Spain has sent no Embassador on this Account into Poland; for as for Don Pedro Ronquillos, who was pre­sent at the Diet of Election of John III. he durst never assume either the Title or Quali­ty of Embassador, for Fear he should be forc'd to give Place to the Embassador of France.

Manner of Receiving them. The Manner of receiving these Embassa­dors is this: The Pope's Legate is intro­duc'd by a certain Number of the Ecclesiasti­cal and Lay-Senators, as likewise by the Marshal of the Deputies, and an assign'd Number out of their Body. The Inter-Rex arising out of his Chair, moves two or three Steps to meet him, and places him on his Right-Hand. The secular Embassadors are introduc'd by some of the Lay-Senators and Deputies only. The Emperour's Minister is plac'd by them between the Great Marshal and the Nuncio-Marshal.

What re­quisite in forreign Ministers. When the Embassadors receive Audience, they make their Harangue in Latin, to which the Archbishop that presides, answers for the Senators, and the Nuncio-Marshal for the Nobility. It is absolutely necessary for all Ministers that have any Interests of their Masters to carry on in the Diet, to be not only eloquent, but liberal and generous, that by their Treats, Feasts, and chiefly their Money, they may gain or purchase the Good Will and Suffrages of the Senate and Gentry. It is so essentially requisite for Em­bassadors [Page 137] to make a great Figure, keep an open Table, spend a vast deal of Money, and to make considerable Presents, that if the Diet do but in the least suspect any Avarice or Niggardliness in them, they will presently impute it to the Poverty of the Prince that sent them, which would prove no small Ob­struction, either to his Election or Interest in Behalf of any body else. Embassadors must likewise take more than ordinary Care to keep in with the Clergy; first, by oblig­ing the Bishops, because they bear great Sway in the Diet, and next the Priests and Fryars, they having no less Influence and Authority over the People. But however Presents are not to be made them in gross, but by little and little, lest they fly off when they ex­pect no farther Recompence; for the Poles generally think themselves oblig'd to serve you, not for what they have already receiv'd, but because they are still in Hopes of receiv­ing more. They are all likewise apt to neg­lect your Interest, and will sometimes take Money from another Prince or his Embassa­dor, to vote against you. The late King is accus'd of taking Money of the Emperor, the Duke of Lorrain, and of the Duke of New­bourg, to employ it in their several Interests in the Election; but however, he did more wisely to make use of it himself to get to be elected, in which we find he had good Suc­cess.

Diet pro­ceeds to E­lection. After the Embassadors have thus had Au­dience, and that all other Matters are settled in the Republick, they proceed to the Electi­on [Page 138] of a King, but first they implore the As­sistance of the Holy Ghost, by singing the Veni Creator: Then they proceed to give their Votes, and communicate them to each other, when if they are unanimous for one Candidate, the Archbishop of Gnesna, or Bishop that presides in his Place, demands thrice if the Grievances and Exorbitancies are redress'd; which being answer'd in the Affirmative, he immediately proclaims the King Elect, which is likewise done at the same Time by the Marshals of the Crown and the Great Dutchy, and then they all joyn in the singing of Te Deum.

Further Particu­lars there­of. Here it may not be amiss to give your Lordship farther Particulars, of the manner of Election, which is this. Assoon as the Anthem is ended, the Senators and Deputies remove from their Places, and divide them­selves into their several Palatinates, making so many peculiar Rota's, the Archbishop of Gnesna only still keeping his Seat. The Or­ders being thus divided, the first Senator of every Palatinate, numbers their Votes; which afterwards are transmitted into a Roll, and delivered under their several Hands to the Nuncio-Marshal. All these Suffrages are then reckon'd together by the Senate in the Szopa, where if there be a Majority for any one Candidate, they labour what they can partly by Perswasion, and partly by Promi­ses, to bring the Electors to be unanimous; for till then no King can be lawfully Pro­claim'd: yet when there is a Division in the Diet, as most commonly it happens, the [Page 139] strongest Party still carries it, as it appear'd in Stephen Batori's Cafe, and that of Sigis­mund III. which last coming soonest into Poland, was Crown'd King at Cracow, not­withstanding that Maximilian was proclaim'd at Warsaw by Cardinal Radzvil. It may be observ'd that the House of Austria has been put by the Crown of Poland no less than thrice. First in the Person of Ernest, by the Election of Henry of Valois; and Secondly and Thirdly, by the Exclusion of this Maxi­milian: And this because the Poles have a Maxim, never to Elect any Powerful Neigh­bouring Prince for fear of being subdu'd, and brought under an Arbitrary Power. The Day after the Election all the Senators and De­puties meet either in the Rota Equestris, or the Castle of Warsaw, and draw up the Decree of Election, subscribing it with their several Hands; which is immediately afterwards sent to the Press to be Printed.

Great Con­cours at the Election and Policy to byass them. To the Election of a King of Poland, not only all the Gentry of the Kingdom and Great Dutchy, but likewise a great Number of Strangers from all adjacent Countries come, yet notwithstanding that, People come from all Parts of Poland; the Senators and Deputies only, have a lawful Vote in the Election: Nevertheless, the other Gentry Interest them­selves either in favouring the Senators, or the Factions of the Deputies, and sometimes fall out among themselves about it, so that it is the absolute Interest of the Candidate to treat and present, not only the individual Members of the Diet, but also these Nobles, [Page 140] altho they have no actual Voices in the Electi­on, for their great Number can easily favour and carry on a Faction, by threatning the Senators and Deputies, in Case they do not elect such a Prince as they propose. This was confirm'd in the Election of Michael Wi­esnowiski, where none of the Electors thought of choosing a Piasto, and much less such a weak poor unexperienc'd Prince as this Duke was; yet the turbulent Mob of Polish Gentry soon forc'd them to elect and proclaim him King, notwithstanding, this being no free Election, they never paid him any great Deference, but undervalu'd, and were so displeas'd with him, that some say, after four Years Reign, he was poison'd by the Contrivance of the Great Men. Thus it is palpably more safe and creditable for a Candidate to purchase himself a strong Party in the Diet, and to support and back them by procuring the Af­fection and good Will of the rest of the Gen­try, than to rely barely on the inconstant and tumultuous Suffrage of a senseless turbu­lent Mob, as the late King sufficiently experi­enc'd before his Election.

Qualifica­tions re­quir'd in a Candidate. There are several Conditions requir'd in a Candidate, that aspires to the Crown of Po­land, which are now past, as Constitutions of the Kingdom, for he must not be a Na­tive (which ^* Hartknoch says he may, and which he proves by a great many Persons) nor marry'd, nor ^†present at the Election, but must be rich, and no absolute or neigh­bouring [Page 141] Prince: And as for his Religion, he must ei­ther actually be, or promise to become a Ro­man Catholick before he can be crown'd. All this after the Death of King Michael the late Elector of Brandenburg, and Duke Ernest of Brunswick promis'd, being not willing, it seems, to lose a Crown for an exteriour Show of a Piece of Religious Ceremo­ny.

Rules ob­serv'd by the Poles in Electi­ons. The Gentry of Poland think themselves so great, and so equal in Respect to each other, that they do not willingly consent to elect a Piasto or Native to a Crown, which their Birth gave them a parallel Right to. They besides think it a great Advantage to their Nation to choose a forreign and rich Prince, that they may make more Alliances abroad, and oblige such Kings to bring all their Ef­fects with them to enrich the Kingdom. They are for an unmarry'd Prince, that they may have the Opportunity of matching him, and so to strengthen their Alliances that Way. They care not to elect a neighbour­ing Prince, for fear he should become abso­lute by his adjoyning Force. But however these, like their other Constitutions, have not been always observ'd; for the only Maxim they have hitherto kept inviolable, is not to elect any Prince but a Roman Catholick, for the late King was both a Piasto and marry'd before he was elected: 'Tis true, they would have had his Queen divorc'd from him, that they might have marry'd him to King Micha­el's Queen Dowager Eleonora, at present Dutchess Dowager of Lorrain; but the Af­fection [Page 142] the King always bore to his Queen, in Conjunction with her own Intrigues among the Senators, soon broke this Design. They have also sometimes elected absolute and neighbouring Princes, as the King of Swe­den, the King of Hungary, the King of Bohe­mia, and the Prince of Transilvania; but then this Constitution was not in Force, being on­ly made of latter Days, for they are now re­solv'd to admit of no such Election hereafter: So that at present a Prince must be very rich to purchase the Votes of so many Hundreds that compose the Diet, and to treat the Gen­try in general: And besides, must have many Heroick and Warlike Qualities, and a great Reputation in the World, to obtain the Crown of Poland: Insomuch that before he can be elected and crown'd, it must necessari­ly cost him several Hundreds of Thousand Pounds Sterling: And moreover, the vast Sums that all the Competitors spend liberally at this Election, far exceeds what the elected Prince has spent, so that the Members of the Diet must needs get well by their Election, which I take to be one of the chiefest Rea­sons why they maintain their Kingdom elective.

Why pre­serve their Kingdom elective. The others are, first, That they take that Government to be easiest, which is executed by a Person whom they have unanimously chosen to obey, being not thereby oblig'd to be subject to a Prince that Nature only has set over their Heads. Secondly, That they esteem an elective Kingdom free from those Hazzards which one that is successive most [Page 143] commonly incurs during the Minority of its Princes, for that then either its Neigbours take an Occasion to invade it, or its Great Men to embroil it, the better to secure the greater Share in the Government to them­selves, under so weak a Head. If this be pre­tended to be remedy'd by assigning fit Tutors and Counsellors to the young Prince; They say, that the Government will be miserably mistaken, for that we do not want in History several Examples of young Kings, who have been driven out of their Thrones by their as­sign'd Governours: And moreover, that sel­dom any Kingdom has been known to conti­nue long in Peace, during the Minority of its King. The third Reason they give is, that in an elective State, rarely any Blood is shed about the Succession, as has frequently hap­pen'd in other Countries, without fetching any Examples from Antiquity. Fourthly, They say, that a King chosen by the free Consent of the People, will be likely, in common Gratitude, to retaliate the Obliga­tion by the Clemency and Justice of his Reign. The fifth Advantage which the Poles pretend by an Election of their Kings is, that in no other State Princes take so great Care to educate their Children, as in theirs. And the sixth is, That by Means of electing their King, the Gentry (who are only consi­der'd in Poland) have the greater Power of conserving their Liberties and Privileges, in which their greatest Happiness consists. And the seventh is, by limiting the Actions of their Kings to the unanimous Consent of the Diet. I might here mention many more [Page 144] Reasons, but for Fear of tiring your Lord­ship by too long a Digression, I return to my Subject.

Who have Votes, and who not. As for those that have Suffrages in this Election, it must be observ'd that the Diet have in general, as likewise the Deputies of some particular Cities, especially the greater ones of Prussia, which formerly had not only Place among the Nuncios, but also in the Se­nate. As for the lesser, the Bishop of Varmia generally subscribes in their Names. There are others who have pretended to, but have been deny'd a Vote in the Election; as the Dukes of Prussia and the Dukes of Curland, when they were only tributary to Poland. The King's Sons also are excluded from a Vote, tho' they should be dignify'd with Consent of the Republick. Soldiers likewise are refus'd a Suffrage, tho' it is no wonder that they laid Claim to such a Privilege (be­ing for the most part chosen out of the Gen­try) when the Cosacks once pretended to it, but who were rejected with Contempt, be­ing look'd upon to be no better than the Scum or Dregs of the Populace.

The Pacta Conventa. At the Time of this Election, the Diet apply themselves to the Conservation of their Rights and Liberties, for this is the best Time to secure their Constitutions and Privi­leges, and to prevent any Abuse of, or Breach in their Laws▪ for which Purpose they are always then very busie in making new Laws, not only to preserve, but like­wise enlarge their Prerogatives. As soon [Page 145] therefore as their King is elected, they pro­pose to him certain Articles or Capitulations to be agreed to before he can be proclaim'd. These Articles they call Pacta Conventa, being properly a Contract between the King and People, which he swears afterwards to keep inviolable before the Altar in the Church of St. John at Warsaw.

When taken by Embas­sadors. Providing the elected King be a foreign Prince, then must his Embassador who repre­sents him, sign these Articles, and take this Oath for him. Thus at the Election of Hen­ry of Valois, his Embassador John de Monluc, Bishop of Valence, was oblig'd to come to the Diet, where, after the Conditions to be ob­serv'd by the new King his Master were read to him, he sign'd them in the Name of the said Henry, and of Charles IX. his Brother, King of France. Then was he conducted to St. John's Church, where after taking the abovesaid Oath, his Master Henry of Valois was proclaim'd King of Poland by the Great Marshal, the eighteent of May, in the Year 1573. Afterwards, according to Custom in these Cases, Embassadors were sent by the Republick to take the Oath from that King in Person at Paris, which they did on the tenth of September following. This is the Method prescrib'd by the Laws for swearing, to observe the Pacta Conventa; yet which is not always punctually observ'd, for King Mi­chael and John Sobieski took that Oath several Days after their Election.

[Page 146] By whom drawn and after what manner Admini­stred. The Form of this Agreement or Capitula­tion is drawn up and methodiz'd by Order of the Senators and Deputies, at the same time that they make the Decree of Election; after which the three Orders, viz. the King elect or his Embassador, the Senate and Deputies go to the Church, where the Chancellor or Grand Marshal reads distinctly with an audi­ble Voice, the whole Contract as follows.

An Article Violated. This Article King Michael broke when he married Eleonora the Emperour's Sister with­out Approbation of the Senate, but which ne­vertheless he afterwards repented of, for they murmur'd heavily against him, and did not scruple to tell him to his Face, that he had violated his Coronation-Oath. Likewise when Prince James the late King's Son, mar­ry'd the Princess of Newbourg, the Senate pro­cur'd the King to send his own Guards, that no German Guards might come into the King­dom.

Occasional Articles▪ To these Articles they commonly add seve­ral others, which vary according to the Cir­cumstances of Time or Quality of the Person elected King. Dr. Connor says, when he was in Poland, he heard the Poles say, that at the next Election they would make a Law, by which the King should be oblig'd to reside al­ways at Warsaw, which in a manner seems to be the Center of the Kingdom. The Reason that made them think of this was, because the late King almost always had an ambulatory Court, having no certain or fix'd Residence or Abode: For sometimes he liv'd on his own Estate in Prussia, and sometimes in Russia at Zolkiew, and so rambled about from one Country Palace to another, where oftentimes the Courtiers, Ambassadors, or several Gentle­men of the Kingdom, that were forc'd to fol­low him about Business, found but very in­different Lodgings and Entertainment. It may here be observ'd, that at new Elections they always make some new Constitution or other, for the Benefit of the Nation, and to abridge the Power of their Kings.

Ceremony of the Kings swearing. The Formalities which they use when they make the King swear to the Pacta Conventa are as follow. The Archbishop of Gnesna, [Page 150] and the Nuncio-Marshal carry these Articles before the King, after Mass, and when they are come to the Great Altar, his Majesty re­peats after the Chancellor these Words.

The Oath. We Frederick Augustus, duly elected King of Poland, and Great Duke of Lithuania, Duke of Russia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Kiovia, Volhynia, Podolia, Podlachia, Li­vonia, Smolensko, Severia, and Czernicovia, do promise to Almighty God, and swear upon the Holy Evangelists, that we will observe, main­tain, and fulfill all the Conditions agreed upon at our Election, between our Embassadors, and the Senators and Deputies of the Kingdom of Poland, and the Great Dutchy of Lithuania, which were confirm'd by the Oath of our said Embassadors, and that we will moreover perform the same in all Rigour, Vigour, Points, Articles, Clauses, and Conditions therein contain'd. All which we pro­mise to ratifie and confirm by Oath on the Day of our Coronation.

Presented with the Decree of Election. When the King has thus sworn to observe the Pacta Conventa, the Chancellor presents him with the Decree of his Election written in Parchment, and sign'd by all the Senators and Deputies.

The Poles make use of these Precautions in the Election of their Kings, by reason that if they at any Time act contrary to what they had promis'd they might have a Right to re­monstrate to them, and put them in mind of their Duty.

[Page 151] It is observable, that from the Time of the King's Election, to that of his Coronation, the great or petty Marshal does not carry the Staff erected before him; that when he issues out any Orders or Proclamations, he assumes only the Character of King-elect, and that no­thing can then be seal'd but by the Signet.

Concerning the Election of a Succes­sor. Before I proceed to describe the Coronati­on of a King of Poland, I may here reasona­bly insert something concerning the Election of a Successor, which tho' it be contrary to the Laws and Constitutions of the Kingdom, and repugnant to the Privileges of an elective Mo­narchy, yet a Father will have always that Respect for his Child, that he will endeavour to get him to succeed him, even while he lives: So Sigismund II. was nam'd King in the Life-time of his Father Sigismund I. but still on Condition that he should not meddle with the Government so long as his Father liv'd. But Sigismund II. being dead, the Di­et, after having inspected the Laws of the Realm, Decreed that there should be no Suc­cessor nam'd for the future, while the Prede­cessor surviv'd. This Constitution Stephen Bateri would have invaded, but the Repub­lick oppos'd him so vigorously, that he was forc'd to let fall his Design.

Interest of foreign Princes to oppose it. All Christian Princes having a feasible Right to the Crown of Poland, it is the Inter­est of each of them to oppose the Election of a Successor, since they would thereby absolute­ly be excluded from it: This occasion'd the present Emperour Leopold, to send Francis de [Page 152] Lisola, to the Diet held at Warsaw in the Year 1661▪ where John Casimir had a Mind to propose a Prince to succeed him: Where­fore in Conjunction with John Owerbeck▪ En­voy to the Elector of Brandenbourg, Lisola rais'd Factions in the Diet, which were secon­ded by Marshal Lubomirski, insomuch that they quickly overthrew King Casimir's De­sign, and caus'd the Diet to confirm the former Constitution against electing of a Suc­cessor: Several of the Lithuanian Gentry had the same Intentions with John Casimir, but however with these following Precautions: First, That such a Successor should be elected a▪new, after the King's Death. Secondly, That he should be a Roman Catholick. Thirdly, That he should not be a Piasto or Native. Fourthly, That he should neither be an Emperour, King, nor Sovereign Prince of another Country. Fifthly, That he should not be any Neighbour of Poland. Sixthly, That he should neither be too young, nor too old. And Seventhly, That he should not be marry'd.

Reasons for and against such an▪ E­lection. No doubt, the Designs of King Casimir, and of all those that were for the Election of a Successor were good, for they had thereby a Mind to secure the Government from those Divisions and Intestine Jarrs which common­ly happen in Interregnums. But those who oppos'd them affirm'd, that the Election of a Successor would undoubtedly soon introduce an Hereditary Monarchy, and be the ruin of their Liberties and Privileges, whatever care they could take to prevent it: That it would [Page 153] be likewise against the Constitutions of the Realm to Elect a Soccessor in the King's Life time; and that if the Republic consented to it, they would be no longer at Liberty to op­pose it: That it would moreover, be an In­jury done to several Princes, who all had a kind of Right to the Kingdom of Poland, which would therefore infallibly embroil it in new Troubles, when it was the Interest of that Crown to be at Peace with all the World. These were the several reasons offer'd by the two Parties, the last whereof, as I said before, got the better.

The King has no Re­gal Autho­rity till Crown'd. Till a King of Poland be Crown'd, he has really no ^*Regal Authority; for he can be­stow no Benefice, give no Office, nor Pardon any Offence: Neither can he make use of the Great Seal of the Chancery, nor set the Courts of Justice a going; which are always silenced during an Interregnum, till he has ta­ken his Coronation Oath.

Appoints the Day of Coronation. It belongs to the King-Elect to appoint a Day for his Coronation; which formerly was wont to be at ^† Gnesna, till the Coronation of Ʋladislaus Locticus was solemniz'd at Cracow in the year 1320. where it was fix'd by the Constitutions of the Kingdom; nevertheless Ʋladislaus VII. would needs Crown his Queen Caecilia Renata at Warsaw; but which was not perform'd without excessive Murmurings of the Gentry.

[Page 154] Manner of his entring Cracow, with other Ceremonies. The Day of Coronation being arriv'd, the King makes his solemn Entry into Cracow, with great Pomp and Acclamations. The Scabins of the City carry the Dais over him, preceded by all the Horse and Foot-Guards, with their Officers. Immediately after the King follow the Bishops, Palatins and foreign Embassadors on Horseback. Just before the King Rides an Officer, who throws some Co­ronation Medals among the People; but which seldom amounts to any great Sum. Thus Attended, his Majesty is conducted thro' the City to the Castle, having first receiv'd the Keys of the City from the Magistrates in the first Gate thereof, and pass'd under seve­ral Triumphal Arches, with Motto's of vari­ous Invention. At the Castle-gate he has the Keys of that Important Place also presented him, with a solemn Harangue, by the Starosta of Cracow. The rest of the Day is spent in Banqueting and Feasts.

Obsequies of Deceas'd King and order of Procession. ^*The Day following, being that which precedes the Coronation, the Obsequies of the deceas'd King are to be celebrated, when they carry his Body to Schalka to the Church of St. Stanislaus. ^†The Order of Procession is this. First the new King marches on foot, then follow all the Officers of the Crown and Great Dutchy, together with the Deputies, the Ensigns, with the Standards of every Palati­nate, [Page 155] and lastly, the Crown, Scepter, Globe, Sword, and other Regalia being car­ry'd before the Corps, pointed towards the Ground. After these come a great Number of other Gentry, and next after them march the several Companies of Trades barefooted, belonging both to the City and Court, each having an empty Coffin and Pall born before them, on the Shoulders of two Men. It is to be observ'd, that all that assist at this Pro­cession, must be in Mourning.

Ceremonies at the In­terment. At the Place of Interment, the Marshals break their Staffs against the King's Tomb, and all the other Officers are discharg'd of their Authorities several Ways. After which the Body is interr'd in the Cathedral Church, among the rest of the Kings of Po­land, who for the most part lie all buryed there. I should have remember'd that the Myter'd Clergy generally march about the Corps.

Day of Core­nation and by whom perform'd. The Day after the Funeral is assign'd for the Coronation, the Ceremony whereof is to be perform'd by the Archbishop of Gnesna, as Primate of the Kingdom, altho' that Of­fice was once ^*disputed with him by S [...]ignei­us Olesnicius, as being both Bishop of Cracow, and Cardinal at the same time; yet neverthe­less Casimir IV. decided that Difference in Fa­vour of the Archbishop, and which was af­terwards confirm'd by Alexander. ^†Not­withstanding [Page 156] if the Primate be either dead or refractory, that Right devolves to the Bi­shop of Cracow, and upon his Obstinacy, Ab­sence, or Death, to the Bishop of Cujavia. The two Bishops that assist at the Coronation are the Bishops of Cracow and Cujavia.

Procession in order to Coronation. The Ceremony of the Procession, when the King goes to be crown'd, is order'd by the Master of the Ceremonies; but before his Majesty stirs out, he is habited after a very splendid Manner, by the Great Marshal of the Kingdom. The King is conducted from the Castle to the Cathedral, by the Senators, foreign Embassadors, and a great Number of the Gentry.

Ceremony at the Co­ronation. Before he enters the Church, the Great Master of the Horse brings the Crown, Scep­ter, and naked Sword to the Archbishop, who places them all upon the Altar. After which the Bishops of Cracow and Cujavia ha­ving receiv'd the King, they hold him un­der each Arm, and present him to the Arch­bishop, to whom he makes a Bow.

Further Particu­lars of the Ceremony of Coronati­on. I imagine a more particular Account of this Ceremony may neither be unacceptable to your Lordship, nor the Publick, and there­fore I shall for the future describe all the most remarkable Circumstances thereof, as it was practis'd in the last Election, with as much Brevity and Succinctness as possible, and which are as follow.

[Page 157] King ex­horted and sworn. After the King has thus been conducted in­to the Church, the Ceremony forthwith be­gins. First the Archbishop in a short Orati­on exhorts the King to continue stedfast in the Roman Communion, to exercise all Regal and Princely Virtues, and lastly, to remune­rate his Obligations to the Republick, by a just and inviolable Administration of the Go­vernment: After which the Archbishop asks him to this Effect in Latin; Will you support and maintain the Holy Catholick Faith, and up­hold it by good Works? To which the King an­swers, I will. Then the Archbishop asks him again, Will you protect and defend the Churches and their Ministers. Answer. I will. Then the Archbishop again, Will you govern and rule the Kingdom committed by God to your Charge, according to Equity and Justice? Answer. I will. Then the King-elect kneeling, and kissing the Archbishop's Hand, and laying his own upon the Evangelists, sworn to perform all that he had before sworn to observe at St. John's Church at War­saw, with some other Particulars that induce me to repeat the Form, which runs thus.

Words at kissing the Book. This Form or Oath having been distinctly repeated by the King after the Chancellor, and before the Archbishop, his Majesty takes the Testament in his Hand, and Kissing it, uses these Words: So may God help me, and the Contents of this Book inspire me, as I perform inviolably this sacred Oath.

Unction with other Ceremonys. After the King has been thus sworn, he rises and hears the Pacta Conventa read, and confirms the Oath which he had taken con­cerning them. Then he Kneels again, and receives the Benediction of the Archbishop and other Bishops; after which he rises and has the upper Part of his Cloaths taken off, when the Archbishop Anoints his right Hand and Arm, up to his Elbow and Shoulder, with consecrated Oyl with these Words: I anoint thee King with consecrated Oyl, in the Name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; Amen. And then he has his Cloaths put on again. Afterwards the two Bishops lead him to a Chappel, on the left Side of the Church, where they Habit him a-new, somewhat like a Bishop: After which he has other Orna­ments put on by the two Marshals of the Kingdom and Great Dutchy, and then he is convey'd by the Senator-Officers, the Stand­ard-bearer of the Kingdom walking before, to the Throne rais'd for him in the Middle of the Church, whence, after having heard Mass, he is brought back to the Altar, where the Arch­bishop delivers a drawn Sword into his Right [Page 160] Hand with these Word, Receive this Sword, and cordially protect and defend the Holy Church against all Ʋnbelievers. Then the King deli­vers the Sword to the Great Sword-Bearer of the Kingdom, who having put it up in its Scabbard, returns it to the Archbishop, who then girds it to the King's Side, whereupon the King immediately rises, and drawing it again, Flourishes it three Times over his Head, to signifie that he will defend the Tri­nity and Church against all Unbelievers.

Manner of Crowning him. This being done, the King kneels again, and the Archbishop puts the Crown, after a very solemn Manner, on his Head, which the two Bishops bear up with their Hands till the Archbishop has said certain Prayers: Af­ter which the Archbishop puts the Scepter in­to the King's Right Hand, and the Globe in­to his Left, when the King rising, his Sword is given again to the Sword-Bearer of the Kingdom to bear before him.

Is Enthro­n'd, After this his Majesty is brought back be­tween the Archbishop and the two Bishops, to the Throne, wherein he is forthwith plac'd by the Archbishop with these Words; Sit and maintain the Place given you by God, &c. The King being thus seated, the Archbishop and Bishops return to the Altar, where they sing Te Deum, which being ended, and the Archbishop sit down by the Altar, the King comes and Offers him Gold, Kisses his Hand, and having made his Confession to him, re­ceives the Sacrament and Benediction from him.

[Page 161] And pre­nounc'd King. Thus the Ceremonies being at an end, the Archbishop rises and gives his Benediction to all present; when the Court-Marshal, with a loud Voice cries out, Vivat Rex, Vivat Rex: Which Signal being taken from him by the People, all the Church soon rings with the same joyful Notes; after which the Great Treasurer scatters a great Number of Coro­nation-Medals among the People, and the Guns begin to roar out their Satisfaction in what had been done, when the King forth­with returns to his Court with great Pomp and Magnificence.

Feasts thereupon▪ The Coronation being thus compleated, the rest of the Day is spent in various Kinds of Feasts and Rejoycings, among which there is one very particular in the King's Court, where they roast three whole Oxen stuff'd and larded with divers Kinds of fatned Wild Beasts, when they also give a great many Hogs-heads of Wine and Beer to the Peo­ple.

Procession to receive Homage; and Citi­zens Knighted. Next Day the King goes on Horse-back, richly attir'd and in great Pomp, to the Town-House, some of the Senators carrying the Regalia before him: The Order of March is, the Bishops behind, and the Lay- Senators before, and then the other Officers, Nuncios, &c. before them. While he is in Procession, the Great Treasurer of the Kingdom scatters a­mong the People a great Number both of Gold and Silver Medals more, from the Castle to the Town-House: Here he is habited a-new with his [Page 162] Royal Robes, and seated in a splendid Throne erected on purpose, when the Senate sitting in an inferiour Degree on each Hand of him, the Magistrates of the City come to pay him their Homage, and to assure him of their Fidelity and Loyalty, presenting him again with the Keys of every of their Gates gilded and laid in a Silver Plate: Which done, the Chancellor assures them of the King's Favour, and then reads aloud the Oath of Fealty to them, which they then take on their Knees, holding up their Hands all the while. Having thus sworn, the Ma­gistrates Present him with a Purse of Gold, and then receive their Keys back. After which the King having deliver'd the Scepter and Globe to some of the Senators standing about him, he receives a naked Sword from the Great Sword-bearer, which rising up and flourishing over his Head towards the four Quarters of the World, he sits down again, and by a light Stroke of the Blade on the Shoulders of some of the Burghers, cre­ates them Knights. This done, the Great Treasurer, in the King's Return back to the Castle, scatters some more Medals among the People, whilst the Canons proclaim their Joy, and if it be Night, as generally it is by that Time all these Ceremo­nies are over, the Fireworks are lighted, and various Proofs of Satisfaction are every where both to be seen and heard.

Inter-Rex resigns and King Pro­claim'd. The King being thus establish'd in the Throne, the Diet of the Coronation sits, where first the Primate lays down his Autho­rity [Page 163] of Inter-Rex, and then every individual Member of the Senate and Diet takes an Oath of Allegiance and Supremacy to the King. after which his Majesty is invested with the Plenary Regal Authority; he gives new Seals to the Chancellors, and the Marshals bear their Staffs erected before him: then he issues out his Royal Proclamation, commanding all Magistrates, and all other Officers of the Kingdom, Great Dutchy, and annex'd Pro­vinces, to cause his Coronation, and Confir­mation of the Peoples Liberties and Privile­ges, to be proclaim'd on the first publick Days in every City and Town, and after­wards to be registred in their Journals. Al­so by the same Proclamation he gives Liberty to all the Courts of Justice, to proceed after their usual Manner; and then confirms a [...] the Acts and Constitutions which have pass'd in the Diet during the Inter-regnum.

Queens where Crown'd and where not. As to what relates to a Queen of Poland's Coronation, we must first observe that she cannot be Crown'd unless she be a Roman Ca­tholick, an Instance whereof we may see in Helena Wife to King Alexander, who being of the Greek Perswasion, and not caring to reform, was not Crown'd. Also we may read in History, that Queens have either been Crown'd with their Husbands or without; with their Husbands, when they were either marry'd to them before or at the Time of their Coronation; and without, when they were marry'd afterwards with Consent of the Diet; for it has always been thought so very necessary to have their Consent, that it is in­serted [Page 164] among the Articles of the Pacta Con­venta. Likewise the King cannot be Di­vorc'd from his Queen without the Approba­tion of the Diet; Neither can he crown her if she be marry'd to him after his Coronation, without their Consent; but if she were mar­ry'd before, he may.

Place of their Coro­nation, The Place of the Queen's Coronation is ge­nerally Cracow, altho there have been some Examples to the contrary; for Ʋladislaus VII. caus'd his Queen, Cecilia Renata, to be Crown'd at Warsaw; and King Michael, his Queen Eleonora, in the same City; but how­ever this last was with Leave of the Diet, tho' at the same time they forbad it to go for a Precedent for the future. What has been said about a Queen's not being to be crown'd if a Dowager surviv'd, is not so, as may appear by several Examples.

And what requir'd to confirm it. As for the Manner of a Queen's Coronation alone, it must be with the King's Consent; he must request it of the Republick; he must be present at the Ceremony; he must lead his Queen into the Church, and he must pre­sent her to the Archbishop or other Bishop, who is to Crown her, Anoint her with conse­crated Oyl, and to put a Scepter into her Right Hand, and Globe into her Left. The King likewise is to carry his Queen to the Town­house, but she is to receive no Homage there.

Having thus, My Lord, amass'd the seve­ral Particulars intended for Your Lordships [Page 165] Perusal, I have nothing left to do but hum­bly to acknowledge my Presumption, and to have Recourse to your Candour and Good­ness for Pardon and Protection.

LETTER V.
To the most Honourable JOHN, Lord Marquess of Norman­by.

TO approach so great a Person as your Lordship on so trifling an Ac­count as the Subject of this Letter, I was conscious to my self, was no way suit­able. On one Hand your known Abilities might reasonably deter my Presumption, and on the other, your elate Quality check my Ambition: Yet, considering at the same time, that sometimes the greatest Genius's and Persons have stoop'd to be entertain'd with the Follies and Transactions of the Crowd, I hop'd, among the rest, I might not offend if I address'd this Letter to you; and the rather because it was first design'd [Page 167] for the Entertainment of your Lordships Lei­sure Hours.

My LORD,

Gentry only capable of Preferment. The Third Order of the Republick of Po­land, is that of the Nobility; out of which all the Senators, and all other Officers, as well Civil as Military, are taken; for no Bo­dy else that is not a Polish Gentleman, tho' he be never so Noble in his own Country, can be capable of any Preferment here, un­less it be some inconsiderable Posts in the Ar­my, the highest whereof is a Colonel, or at most a Major-General, which is much the same with a Brigadeer in our Army. So that there is little or no Encouragement for Per­sons of foreign Countries, of what Merit or Degree soever, to go to serve this Repub­lick, which proves no small Inconvenience and Prejudice to their State.

Commonal­ty Incapa­ble except some few. As for the Citizens and Peasants, they are excluded from all Preferments, and can have no Possessions unless they be a few Houses in a City, or a small Piece of Land about a League off in the Country. But here the Ci­tizens in Prussia are excepted, for they may possess Lands of what Extent soever, out of their Cities. Also the Inhabitants of Cracow may purchase and enjoy Lands in any Part of the Kingdom. Likewise the Magistrates of Vilna have a Power to possess Lands, and the City of Leopol in like manner has a Privilege for its private Citizens to hold Lands.

[Page 168] Gentrys Power and Privileges. A Nobleman, Gentleman, or one that is free-born of the Kingdom of Poland, are the same thing. Every Gentleman has his Coat of Arms granted him by the Republick but then; either he or some of his Family must have Possessions in Lands there. He can pretend to all the greatest Employments and Offices in the Kingdom, and buy Lands where he pleases all over the Dominions of Poland and Lithuania: He has moreover a Right to the Crown, if his Credit and Interest can pro­cure it. Every Gentleman is a Sovereign Lord and Master in his own Lands, for he has the Power of Life and Death over his Te­nants, or (as the Poles term them) his Sub­jects, tho' I may better call them his Slaves, for they have neither Privilege nor Law to protect them, but are to be govern'd abso­lutely by the Will and Pleasure of their Lord. They dare not leave his Lands to go to ano­thers, under Pain of Death, unless he sells them to his Neighbour, as he has the Power to do, or has violated or ravish'd their Wives or Daughters; insomuch that I have heard that some have wish'd to have had a fine Wife or Daughter, that their Lord might thereby have given them Occasion to get rid of him.

Cannot be Apprehend­ed till con­victed. If a Gentleman kills another Gentleman's Slave, he is neither to be try'd nor punish'd for it, and is only oblig'd to give that Gen­tleman another Slave in the Room of him, or as much Money as will buy one: And be­sides, to maintain the Family of the Person [Page 169] that he has kill'd: likewise if he kills one of his own Slaves, he only pays a matter of fif­ty Livres to be quit. Nay, if one Gentle­man kills another, he cannot be apprehended nor clapt into Prison for his Crime Nisi Jure Victus, unless a Court of Justice has first con­victed him, which commonly gives him Time enough to escape, for he must first be cited to appear, and upon his Neglect he is declar'd contumacious, and consequently convicted: But it may very well be suppos'd, that he who knows himself guilty, will not run the Hazard of Appearing, nor venture the losing of his Head. This Honour the Poles likewise bestow on the common People, Hanging being not the usual Way of Executi­on in their Country.

Exception. However, Hartknoch has these Exceptions from this Privilege; for (says he) if a No­bleman be taken in the very Act of Ra­vishing, Burning of Houses, Theft, Robbery, or the like, he may be apprehended by the Laws: Likewise if he will not give sufficient Caution, ac­cording to the Quality of his Offence; or lastly, if he be found in the Register to have been thrice con­victed before.

Notwithstanding this Privilege of the Nobility (says Hauteville) I have known one Instance to the contrary, for those who assassinated Gonczen­ski, Petty General of Lithuania, were seiz'd without any Formality, and carry'd Prisoners to Elbing, and were afterwards condemn'd to be be­headed at the general Diet at Warsaw, in the Year 1664. but then this Crime of theirs was so notorious, that the Nobility might well have [Page 170] wav'd their Privilege; for these Villains took that Gentleman out of his Bed at Vilna, and putting him into a Coach with a Confessor, carry'd him out of the City, where they scarce allow'd him Time to say his Prayers before they shot him dead with Pistols.

Cannot be Executed without the Kings Consent. A Polish Nobleman, tho' he be proscrib'd and cited, and found guilty, cannot be exe­cuted without the King's Knowledge and Consent, as may appear by the Case of Samu­el Zborowski, who tho' he had been proscrib'd and condemn'd by the Great Chancellor and General of the Army Zamoiski, yet would he not presume to Behead him till he had known King Stephen's Pleasure therein.

Need not Quarter Soldiers. The Polish Gentry also have another Privi­lege which is, that no Soldiers or Officers of the Army can be Quarter'd upon them, for if any one should presume to attempt such a thing, the Diet would either condemn him to Death, or pronounce him infamous, where­by he would be depriv'd of the Power of giv­ing his Vote in all Assemblies, and moreover be render'd incapable of enjoying any Office or Employment in the State, and this is as being degraded from his Nobility; whereup­on I may take notice of a Passage that hap­ned at the Diet of Election of John III. and which did not a little contribute towards his being chosen. The Palatin of Smolensko's Son went and quarter'd at the House of Wiesno­wiski, without his Leave (as was reported) by Order of the Grand General Patz, which occasion'd the Marshals, who are Judges in [Page 171] these Cases, two Days before the breaking up of the Diet, to deprive this Palatin of his Vote in the Election, whereby Sobieski was freed from a declar'd Enemy, and the Au­strian Faction lost a profess'd Friend.

Other Pri­vileges of the Gentry. The King likewise cannot now lodg in any Nobleman's House against his Will, as he could before the Year 1433. Also wherever any Foreigner dies without Heirs, his Estate Escheats to the Lord of those Lands where he dy'd, and not to the King. And where any Polish Gentleman dies without Heirs, the King cannot seize upon his Estate by Right of Escheat, if he have a Relation left of the eighth Degree inclusively. The Gentry also may have Houses in the King's Cities and Towns, but then they must not let such Trades inhabit them, as may prove obnoxi­ous, or a Nusance to the Citizens; and like­wise these Houses ought to be subject to the Jurisdiction of the City, but which however is seldom or never observ'd. The House of a Nobleman moreover is a Kind of Asylum, for tho' Delinquents may be arrested there with his Consent, yet cannot they be taken thence by Force.

Need not pay Taxes unless obli­g'd by the Diet. Not less are a Nobleman's Privileges as to Customs and Taxes, for if he will swear his Goods were not bought, but arising from his Lands, he may send them any where out of the Kingdom to be sold without paying Duties; and where he has once so sworn, his Testimonials alone for the future will suffice to exempt them. Also his Subjects will have [Page 172] the same Privilege wherever they trade. In Prussia the Nobles are not only free from Cu­stoms, but likewise all the other Inhabitants by the Magna Charta of Culm. But altho the Polish Nobility are thus said to be free from Taxes, yet upon emergent Occasions and Ex­igencies, the Diet usually obliges them to pay them for a certain Time.

Privilege of Preemp­tion. The Nobility also have a Privilege of Pre­emption of Salt; for in the Staples for that Commodity, there must be at least a Months Notice before any can be sold to any body else.

Have one Grievance notwith­standing. After all these Privileges, the Polish Nobi­lity have one very great Grievance, which is that they are oblig'd to serve in the Pospolite Ruszanie, or General Muster of the Militia, at their own Charges.

How they came by these Pri­vileges. How the Polish Gentry came by all these Privileges, it may not be here improper to en­quire, since it is certain that formerly they were not much better than Slaves: For to pass by many other Examples, Cromerus says, they were once oblig'd to keep the King's Dogs. The first Glimpse of their Li­berty may reasonably be ascrib'd to the Pri­vileges granted the Clergy by Boleslaus the Chast; but afterwards when Poland began to be harrass'd by Civil Wars, the Gentry ob­tain'd many larger Privileges from their Kings, and which they have since always ta­ken Care to get augmented at every new Ele­ction.

[Page 173] All equal and conse­sequently value no Honour. All the Gentry of Poland are equal by Birth, notwithstanding some of the meaner Sort send their Children to serve the Great Men as other Servants, and this principally to learn Breeding and to be kept in Awe; yet may that very same Servant have as good a Vote in the Diet as his Master. They nei­ther value nor care for Titles of Honour, for they think the greatest they can have, is to be a Noble Pole, or Gentleman of Poland. Neither the King nor Republick gives any Title of Prince, Duke, Marquess, Count, Vicount, Baron, or Knight, to any of the free-born of the Nation, thinking (I sup­pose) that none can be any ways rais'd above another by a bare exteriour Denomination, which argues more the Favour of the Prince, than Merit of the Person preferr'd, but ra­ther by their Services in the Offices and Em­ployments which they enjoy.

Title of Prince de­spis'd. There are no Princes of the Kingdom, but those which are of the Royal Family, for al­tho some of the Poles have been made Princes of the Empire by the Emperour, as Prince Lubomirski, &c. Yet it gives them no Prece­dence in Poland, but rather renders them odi­ous and despis'd by the rest of the Gentry, who cannot endure that any should pretend to any Superiority among them, especially by a Title which is not annex'd to some Employ­ment in the Nation.

An Order Instituted but under­valu'd. King Sigismund III. thought of establishing an Order of Knighthood of the Immaculate [Page 174] Conception in Poland; and had effectually crea­ted several Knights thereof, allowing them certain Privileges, and a Superiority above others; but these were so despis'd and under­valu'd by the rest of the Gentry, that scarce any one afterwards car'd for that up-start Ho­nour; whereupon that Order soon dwindled into nothing. The Poles have a Proverb to prove their Equality which is, That they are measur'd like a Bushel of Corn, that is, whenever any one pretends to rise but a Grain above the Level, he is immediately struck off and ridi­cul'd.

What Dut­chies in Po­land. There are some Gentlemen in Poland, that have had Dutchies time out of mind annex'd to their Estates, as Duke Radzivil in Lithua­nia, &c. But there are no Dutchies or Counties created by the King.

Polish Gen­try assume Titles when they Travel. Tho the Poles in their own Country have no Honorary Titles above a Gentleman, yet several have been known to have usurp'd them when they have travell'd into France, Italy, and Germany, for they there frequent­ly assume those of Counts to themselves, in like manner as the Germans in foreign Coun­tries do those of Barons, for nothing is more common than Monsieur le Conte Malakowski, Il Signior Conde Potoski, Mynheer Graff Jablo­nowski, &c. And this they do to be the more easily admitted into Company, especially in Germany, where 'tis scarce thought that any body can be a Gentleman under a Baron, and consequently not fit for Conversation. Dr. Connor likewise says, he has known some of [Page 175] our English Gentry in these Countries that have not scrupul'd to call themselves Lords to procure them the greater Respect, since they saw that the Title of Gentleman alone was not regarded there.

Farther Power of Polish Gen­try. The Gentry of Poland make and defend their own Laws and Liberties, elect their King with all manner of Freedom, give him the Crown and Scepter, appoint Ministers to counsel and instruct him, and their Number far exceeding that of the Senate, they easily keep the King and Senators in their Duty, and threaten both very often, especially in the Diet, where each Member has a Liberty to speak what he thinks, and to think what he pleases. 'Tis they that despute the Nun­cios, out of themselves, for every Province, to meet and sit in the General Diet, with full In­structions, and absolute Power not to consent to any Proceedings which should in the least entrench on their Privileges, or if such Depu­ties should happen to be brib'd to act con­trary to their Instructions, then have the Gentry of the Province whence they were sent, a free Authority to punish them for so doing.

What makes them so Great. Not only these excessive Privileges make the Polish Gentry Powerful and Great, but likewise the vast Territories which a great Number of them enjoy with a Despotick Power over their Subjects, for some possess Five, some Ten, some Fifteen, some Twenty, nay some Thirty Leagues of Land out right, whereon they have always their several Pod-Starostas [Page 176] or Gentlemen-Stewards residing, who are to take Account of their Revenues, to sell some things, and to send the rest to their Masters Houses, to defray the Exigencies of the Family. Some also are Hereditary Sove­reigns of Cities which the King has nothing to do with, and one of the Princes, Lubomirski, possesses above Four Thousand Cities, Towns, and Villages. Moreover, some can raise an Army of Five, Six, Eight, and Ten Thousand Men, and maintain them at their own Charges when they have done. Dr. Connor says, Prince Lubomirski had actually Seven Thousand Horse, Foot, and Dragoons in Pay when he was in Poland.

Their Ex­cessive Grandeur and Mag­nificence. All the Gentry of Note live most splendid­ly: They have all their Horse and Foot Guards, which keep Centry Night and Day at the Gates of their Houses (they call them Courts) and in their Anti-Chambers. These Guards go before and after their Masters Coaches in the Streets: But above all, these Noblemen make an extraordinary Figure at the General Diets, where some have Three Hundred, some Five, and some a Thousand Guards always attending them. Nay, Hau­teville says, that formerly some Great Per­sons have been known to come to the Diet with above Ten Thousand Men. They esteem themselves not only equal, but also above the Princes of Germany, especially such among them as are Senators. 'Tis cer­tain, they want nothing to be as so many So­vereign Princes, except the Liberty of coin­ing Money, which the Republick has reserv'd [Page 177] wholly to it self. The Doctor says, he has no where seen Subjects live with such exces­sive Grandeur and Splendour; for these Great Men, when they go to Dinner or Sup­per, have always their Trumpets sounding, and a great Number of Gentry to wait on them at Table, some whereof carve, some give to drink, others reach Plates, and all serve with extraordinary Respect and Sub­mission; for tho all the Gentry in Poland are equal, and have all their free Votes in the Diet, yet the Little and Poorer Sort think it no Disgrace to serve them that can maintain them. 'Tis true, the Gentleman they serve is commonly very civil to them, for the eld­est of them generally eats with him at Table with his Cap off, and every one of them has a Peasant-Boy to wait on him, which the Master maintains; yet if any one of these Gen­tlemen-Servants neglects his Duty, his Ma­ster punishes him severely, tho' he has no Power to take away his Life because he is a Gentleman, but he may get him whipt naked with a certain Formality which I have menti­on'd before.

Means to support for ever the Polish Re­public. It may not be here amiss to observe to your Lordship some few Maxims whereby the Republick of Poland might always subsist, and the Gentry retain their ancient Privile­ges. First, By reducing all the Gentry of the Kingdom to an equal Authority in the Ele­ction of a King, and other publick Delibera­tions, by which the King or Senate would be depriv'd of a Power of raising any considera­ble Factions; and the Grandees be discourag'd [Page 178] from affecting and hunting after Foreign Ti­tles which commonly ensnare them to the Prejudice of their Country. Secondly, By keeping up the free Choice of their Nuncios, which would disable the Court and Senate from getting their Creatures elected, to the utter abrogating of the Privileges of the Gen­try, wherein the Poles now follows the pru­dent Example of the Roman Common-wealth. Thirdly, By preserving the Custom of the Gentries appearing in great Numbers at the Diet, which animates both the Senate and De­puties in the Prosecution of Affairs for the Good of the Kingdom, and deters them from being biass'd by any sinister Means. Fourthly, By obliging both Senators and De­puties to give an Account of their Proceedings, which must needs encline them to act with a great deal of Precaution. Fifthly, By pro­hibiting the Army to come near the great Assembly of the States, for Rome never en­joy'd so great Happiness as when the Gown had Preference of the Sword. Sixthly, To maintain the Law of Equality in Matters of Descent, whereby the Gentry would be kept at an even Lay, and hinder'd from disturbing the Government by too great a Power. Se­venthly, Never to prefer any Native to the Crown, because of the great Disorders it might in all Likelyhood occasion. Eighthly, To maintaim the Authority of their Democra­cy establish'd for so many Ages, by the Pru­dence of their Ancestors, and all along con­tinu'd with no small Hazards and Trouble. And Ninthly, Never to permit any Foreign Princes to intermeddle with their Affairs.

[Page 179] What fo­reign Em­bassadors are oblig'd to. There is no Country where Embassadors are oblig'd to make so great a Figure as in Po­land, especially if they have any Interest of the Prince their Master to maintain or carry on in the Diet or among the Gentry; for the Great Men there generally despise all such as either do not or cannot make the same Fi­gure with themselves, which is so excessive, that an Embassador must have three remarka­ble Qualities to keep up with it. For first, he must have a great Train of Coaches and Servants proportionable; next keep a plenti­ful and open House continually, to Treat and Fuddle the Gentry, and where he must be ve­ry humble and familiar with them, they be­ing generally very civil and easie in their Conversation: And lastly, which is the surest way to gain their Affection and Suffrages, he must give 'em ever now and then a little Mo­ney, and he still promising them more, for Reasons I have mention'd before.

Law Diffe­rences deci­ded by the Sword. When the Great Men of Poland have any Suit at Law, or other Difference to be de­termin'd, the Justice of the Kingdom is com­monly too weak for them; for tho' the Diet or other Tribunals had decided the Matter in Favour of one of the two Parties, yet the Ex­ecution of their Judgment must be left to the Power of the strongest Sword; for these Grandees generally think it beneath them to submit to the Sentence of a Company of Judges without a Field-Battle. Sometimes they will raise five or six Thousand of a Side, plun­der and burn one anothers Towns and Cities, [Page 180] and besiege each others Castles and Forts, and after a great deal of Blood-shed, Fatigue, and Expence, the unjuster Cause shall commonly get the upper Hand.

An Exam­ple. Dr. Connor says, When he was in Poland, there was a Quarrel between Duke Raazivil and Prince Sapieha, about whether of the two should be Guardian to the young Princess of Newbourg, Neece to the present Empress, for her Mother was Dutchess Radzivil of Lithua­nia, and Heiress of the greatest Estate in the Kingdom. Both Parties had their Troops in the Field, and had some Skirmishes, but it was thought that Prince Sapieha, being Great General of the Forces of Lithuania, would get the better, tho' it seems Duke Radzivil, as being her Mother's Relation, had more Right to the Guardianship of her. All this while the King never concern'd himself in the Quarrel, nor declar'd for either Par­ty.

Nature of Descents in Poland. As to Matters of Descent, The Father's Estate is always equally divided among his Children, in like manner as in Italy, Germa­ny, and most Foreign Countries, but when the Father is dead, the Mother can enjoy all his Estate for Life, and it is absolutely in her Breast to allot every one of the Children their Quota, or to keep all the Estate to her own Use during her Life. Some Mothers Marry after the Husbands Deaths, and so spend their first Childrens Fortunes with their second Husbands. This makes the Children more than ordinary obedient to [Page 181] their Mothers, especially during their Wid­dowhood.

Children however support their Fa­milies. Altho Estates in Poland are equally divi­ded among the Children, which one would think should absolutely weaken or ruin their Families, yet do they generally find Means to support and keep them up; for most com­monly some of the Brothers turn Monks, and so get to be made Abbots or Bishops, whose Revenues are here sufficient to enrich any Fa­mily; and the rest look after State-Employ­ments, which are likewise considerable. Some of the Daughters also many times be­come Nuns, so that being in the Church Ser­vice, they are oblig'd to live in Celibacy, and consequently leaving no Heirs, all their Goods or Estates fall to their Marry'd Bro­thers or Sisters, or to their Children. In this Country the Daughters always walk be­fore their Mothers, as in Italy, and the un­marry'd Sisters before the marry'd.

Good Tem­per of the Poles and its Effect. I cannot but admire at the honest and good Temper of the Polish Gentry; for tho' their Liberty is extraordinary; tho' they have Power of Life and Death over their Subjects; tho' they are in a manner above their own Laws, and tho' Justice is administer'd in Po­land more slightly than in any other Country, yet Dr. Connor says, that all the while that he was in that Kingdom, he neither saw nor heard of any Murther or Slaughter, or of any Barbarity or Cruelty committed by the Gen­try on their Subjects; nor, what is a great­er Wonder, of any High-way Robbers, but [Page 182] always observ'd the Poles in general to be good humour'd, harmless, and generous: When it is certain, had we in England but the third Part of their Liberty, we could not live together without cutting one anothers Throats, since Experience dayly shews, that notwithstanding the great Vigilancy of our Officers, the Severity of our Laws, the just Rigour of our Judges and Magistrates, and the punctual Execution of their Sentences and Judgments, the Gallows and Gibbets are more frequently visited here, than even the Prisons are in Poland.

How Occa­sion'd. I fancy the Reason that the Poles are so quiet and good natur'd is, because being born free, and living in an excessive Liberty, under no Laws nor Arbitrary Power, there is nothing before them that can constrain their Minds, bridle their Passions, or curb their Thoughts; but as there is nothing that can entice them to do ill, so nothing likewise can hinder them from doing it.

Polish Pea­sants how first Ensla­v'd. Dr. Connor says, He has ask'd some Polish Noblemen, why they so inhumanely treated and undervalu'd their Boors: They answer'd, That formerly all the Boors of the Kingdom revolted from their Landlords, rebell'd against them, (as the Swissers did against their Gen­try) and conspir'd together to extirpate and destroy them all; that they Murther'd and kill'd a vast number of Gentlemen; and that the rest were oblig'd either to hide them­selves, or to leave the Kingdom. But that at length the Gentry getting together from [Page 183] all Parts; and being moreover Assisted by their Neighbours, they so frighted and de­feated the poor Peasants, who had made a ge­neral Insurrection against them, to set up a Commonwealth of their own, that they brought them to such Extremities, that ever since they have been contented to be kept Slaves. Yet the Poles say, that though they have an Absolute Power over them, they sel­dom make use of it any more than other Christians do over their Dogs or Horses. Strange Comparison! As if they spar'd the poor Peoples Lives rather out of Self-interest, than Charity; and by reason that they thought they would be more serviceable to them Living than Dead; not unlike some Kings, who give Malefactors their Lives, only to prefer them to their Gallys.

Live satis­fy'd not­withstand­ing. Notwithstanding the Peasants in Poland be­ing born Slaves, and having no manner of Notion of Liberty, live very well satisfy'd and contented. In Curland they are as sub­ject to their Landlords as in Poland; and in both Countries, Masters are almost paid Ado­ration. Their Slaves love them, and Fight willingly for them; and all they have is abso­lutely at their Devotion. Nay, though they Debauch their Wives and Daughters, yet they only care to obtain their Liberty by it; and this is so common a thing among these poor Wretches, that they never value their Wo­men the less for it, nor think themselves a whit either injur'd or dishonour'd by it.

[Page 184] Their pre­sent Condi­tion. The Condition of the Kmetons (as the Poles call them) or Boors, or Rusticks, at this Day in Poland is such, that they lead mi­serable and wretched Lives, haviug no Laws, no Judges, and scarce any Religion among them; but like Brutes, they are forc'd to Work on Sundays, and dare not so much as Appeal to the King or Diet for Redress. How­ever, in Royal Prussia their Condition is something better; for there they enjoy al­most the same Laws and Liberties with the Gentry. Formerly Casimir the Great made several Laws in their behalf; but which at this day are seldom or never practis'd. All Bishops, Abbots, Palatins, Castellans, &c. are oblig'd to be of the Nobless, except a certain Number assign'd by King John Albert out of the Plebeians, to be capable of being inferiour Divines, Lawyers or Physicians only. An Exception from this Law may be seen in the Person of Peter Gamratus, who from a Ple­beian was prefer'd by Sigismund, to several both Ecclesiastical and Temporal Dignities: But in Prussia, as I have remark'd before, the Customs are much more indulgent to the Common People.

Enrich their Lords. As I have hinted before to your Lordship, a Gentleman's Revenue in Poland partly con­sists in his Slaves; for he cannot well be esteem'd Rich, unless he has a great Number of these poor Creatures under his Power; whereof there is scarce any but earn their Lords a 100 Franks a year. It may not be improper therefore, to observe here the Man­ners [Page 185] and Customs of these poor Wretches; And it may first be remark'd, That these Slaves can enjoy nothing of their own, nor ever become Free, unless they can get into some Convent, or get to be Ordain'd Priests, or else incline their Masters to Debauch their Wives or Daughters, whereby the Law sets them Free: But most commonly their Lords have a watchful Eye over them, and obviate all their Policies.

How esta­blish'd in a Farm. These Lords never Let their Lands to Farm; but to establish a Peasant on them, they forth­with order the other Peasants of the Village at their own Charges, to Build him a House, Furnish him with a Cow, Hens, Geese, and a quantity of Rye sufficient to keep him a Year: so that a Lord of a Village is at no other Charge to set up a Slave on his Lands, than he first Cost him.

Their Ser­vice an­nex'd thereto. These poor Slaves, or Subjects as they call them, most commonly work three Days in a Week for their Lords, to one for themselves, and sometimes four. Dr. Connor says, in his time a Country-man had a mind to forward his Son in Learning, and would have sent him to the University; but which the Signior would by no means condescend to, and put the Son in Prison for refusing to be his Secretary, till at last the Father was forc'd to purchase his Liberty at the Expence of 400 Crowns which he had Borrow'd. When a Lord sells his Land, the Slaves commonly go along with it, though he can dispose of either separately, if he pleases.

[Page 186] Meet to reap their Lords Corn. At the time of Harvest all the Peasants of the Village meet together to Reap their Lords Corn, who are supervis'd, and forc'd to Work by very rigid Taskmasters. Their Punishments are sometimes several Blows of a Cudgel, and sometimes a kind of Pillory, wherein those Wretches shall be sometimes set for a whole Day together. I should think now, these poor Wretches the most misera­ble Creatures Breathing; but they on the contrary, never having known any better Condition; and having seen their Fathers Slaves before them, are well satisfied and con­tented with their Servitude. But however, they have this Happiness, that they seldom want for Victuals and Drink; for their Wives chiefest Employment is to provide them with that.

Their Man­ners at Bed and Board. They have generally three or four sorts at a Meal, viz. One of Pease, with a little Ba­con slic'd among it. Another of Course Wheat, Barley, or Millet, whereof they make their Cachat; and two others of seve­ral sorts of strengthening Roots; whereof they have great Plenty, and very good. The Movables of these Peasants Cottages are only a few Earthen or Wooden Dishes, and a hard Bed, which they make themselves, with a very wretched Coverlet. Their Children are not suffer'd to have a Bed till they are Mar­ry'd; but are forc'd to lye upon Boards by the Hearth side. These sort of Hearths have no Chimneys; and the Smoak has only a little Hole to get out at the Top of the House. [Page 187] In Poland it is impossible to subsist a Nights without these Hearths; and therefore not only the Peasants, but Gentry likewise, are oblig'd to have them; though the last are of different Make and Materials from the for­mer.

Children how taught to go. The Peasants Children, especially in Russia, go Naked till they are four or five years Old. They are not taught to go till they are indif­ferent Strong, and then their Mother sets them against the Threshold of the Door, where they first begin to Essay their Strength. After they have roll'd about till they are suf­ficiently Dirty, she takes them and washes them in Cold Water, as I observ'd before; so that this being first considered, it need not be wonder'd that they afterwards become so exceeding hardy. I have seen some of these Children (says Hauterille) that would slide along upon the Ice for a good way together stark Naked.

Habits of both the Men and Women. For the Habits which these Peasants use in Winter, they are a Sheep Skin with the Wool on; and in Summer, a Close-body'd Coat of Course Stuff, of a Colour much like our Chimney-Sweepers. They also wear ordina­ry Caps on their Heads. Sometimes they have Boots for their Legs, but most com­monly the Rind of Trees only wrapp'd round them, with the thicker part to guard the Soles of their Feet against Stones: The same Custom is us'd in Lithuania, as may be seen hereafter. The Women-Peasants are habited in like manner as in other Countries, except [Page 188] that their Smocks and Petticoats are exceed­ing Short. Those in Russia go generally in Summer in their Smocks, with an Apron be­fore them that reaches lower than ordinary.

Nobility how acqui­r'd in Po­land. Now I shall proceed to inform your Lord­ship how Nobility is acquir'd in Poland, which is first by Birth, where both the Pa­rents were Noble: Nevertheless now a-days, by a long Tract of Custom, not only such are reputed Noble, but likewise those whose Mothers were Plebeians▪ for nothing is at pre­sent more practis'd in Poland than for the Gentry to match with the Commonalty, es­pecially with those that are rich. Secondly, Nobility is acquir'd by Creation, which for­merly was wholly at the King's. Pleasure, but of latter Days is only at the Disposal of the Senate or Diet.

Creation of a Gentle­man. The Manner of making a Gentleman is this. The King not being sole sufficient for that Purpose, he is oblig'd to send to all the little Diets of the Kingdom for their Consent, which afterwards also must be approv'd by the Great Diet, and then a Gentleman may have his Diploma, and be enroll'd. All this Ceremony, and a great deal more goes to the making of a Gentleman in Poland. A Jew is made a Gentleman, first by becoming a Christian, and then by signalizing himself in the Wars, when he is propos'd by the King to the little Diets, and afterwards con­firm'd by the great one. It may be here ob­serv'd that 'tis better to be born than crea­ted Noble, for these last (call'd by the Poles [Page 189] Scartabelli) are subject to several Impositions and Inconveniencies which the others are ex­empt from.

A third way of be­coming No­ble. There is a third way of becoming Noble, which is by serving as Magistrate in some pri­vileg'd City, particularly in Cracow and Vil­na, where the Consuls or Senators are quali­fy'd to transmit their Privileges to their Po­sterity.

Three ways of forfeit­ing it. Also as Nobility is to be gain'd, so likewise it may be forfeited three Ways: First, by some heinous Crime: For Example, where a Nobleman permits one that is Ignoble to usurp his Coat of Arms. Secondly, by exer­cising any Trade or Merchandizing, or any sordid Calling in any City or Town; where­by he immediately forfeits his Privileges and Quality. And thirdly, by being a Ma­gistrate in any City not Privileg'd.

In what Case resto­r'd. However, tho' Nobility may by these Means be lost and forfeited, yet many have been known to be restor'd where their Pa­rents had quitted their Quality thro' Poverty, the Poles justly considering the Force of that Condition, which is able to drive Men to the most Ignoble Actions.

Chracter of the Poles. To give your Lordship a Character of the Poles, I may affirm that they exceed all the Nations of Europe in Vivacity of Spirit, Strength of Body, and living long, which cannot be occasion'd by their Climate, be­cause the Swedes, Moscovites, and Germans live [Page 190] all under the same Parallel, and yet enjoy not the like Vigour and Health, and therefore must proceed,

First, From their Diet, which as to Meat is generally fresh roasted Flesh (for they scarce ever eat any boyl'd or salt) and Fowl, which encreases the volatile and fix'd Salts, and thence comes their Vigour and Vivacity.

Secondly, From their Drink, which is spiri­tuous and strong, being chiefly Hungarian Wine burnt, or Aniseed Water, both which they guzzle down in great Quantities almost all the Day long. The poorer Sort have a Liquor distill'd from Wheat, Oats, or Bar­ley, which the Gentry rectifie with Anniseeds or Aromaticks.

Thirdly, From their living hardily, for they hate Effeminacy, and a poor Country Cottage pleases them as well as a Palace, and they frequently weave Tapistry and Arras, as they travel along upon the Roads.

Nay, many of them will sleep in Time of Frost and Snow without any Bed or other Conveniency, and the little Children, two Months after they are born, have been seen carry'd about stark naked.

Fourthly, from hunting, which is very much in Use among them, and particularly of a wild Beast which they call Zubra, having no cloven Feet. They eat these Animals, which they find only in Lithuania. The Poles are ex­treamly addicted to, and expert in Horseman­ship, which might probably occasion the Arms of Lithuania.

[Page 191] Fifthly, From other Exercises, for the Poles are very much enclin'd to Dancing, Leaping, Vaulting, Jumping, &c. as likewise exceed­ingly given to Talking and Conversation, wherein they agree with the French.

Sixthly, Their Beds, Fasting, and Tempe­rance in Eating, very much contribute towards their living long; for hard Beds knit their Bones, and Temperance refines their Spirits. The Slaves among them have no Beds, and the Masters seldom use any but Quilts, and the like.

And seventhly, Their Health, Vigour, and Vivacity may reasonably be augmented by their great Freedom and Privileges; for where Slavery hebetates and blunts the Mind, and consequently enervates the Body, Liber­ty exhilerates the one, and by that means strengthens the other.

Their Com­plexion, Constituti­on, &c. The Complexion of the Poles is generally enclining to fair, as likewise their Hair to a pale Yellowish Colour. Their Stature is commonly of the middle Sort, tho' a little tending to the tallest. Their Constitutions are generally good, and their Bodies gross, yet the Women of Quality make it their chief Study to make themselves lean and slim: But Painting and Washes to meliorate their Complexions they abhor, neither have they any Occasion for them.

Manners of the Polish Men. The Polish Men cut their Hair about their Ears like Monks, as I observ'd in the first Vo­lume of this History. They raze away all the Hair from their Faces, leaving only one large [Page 192] Whisker. They walk gravely with a Poll-Ax in their Hands, and a Sabre by their Sides, which they never put off but when they go to Bed. This Sabre hangs by a Strap of Leather, to which is also fastened a Hankercheif, a Knife and Sheath, and a small Stone set in Silver to whet their Knife upon. They wash their Faces and Necks eve­ry Morning in cold-Water, and the Fathers are accustom'd to make their Children to wash themselves as soon as they are stirring, even in the sharpest Weather.

Their fur­ther Cha­racter. The Poles are generally open-hearted and honest (as Boterus observes in his Relations) more apt to be deceiv'd than to deceive, and not so easily provok'd as appeas'd. They are likewise for the most part very dutiful to their Magistrates, and courteous and hospita­ble to Strangers, which last they will not on­ly invite to their Houses and freely converse with, but also endeavour to imitate. I have known some (says Hauteville) that have en­tertain'd French Men, Italians, and Germans whom they did not know, meerly because they were out of Employment.

Education and Lear­ning. From their greenest Years they apply themselves to Letters, yet which generally speaking, seldom extends much beyond a perfect Knowledge of the Latin and their own Language, altho they have not however all along wanted for famous Mathematicians, Historians, Orators, Philosophers, and Poets; as likewise for learned Physicians, Lawyers, and Divines; some of which have illustrated [Page 193] both the Church and their Native Country with their Writings. And doubtless the Learned would have been oblig'd to more of their Nation had not their Works perish'd for Want of Printing, which Art has been but lately receiv'd among them. Your Lord­ship will find no People with whom you may more generally converse in Latin, and where all Records are written in that Language: The Women also learn Latin in the Nunne­ries.

To what generaly apply them­selves. The Adult among the Plebeians generally addict themselves, the Men to Trade or Agriculture, and the Women to good House­wifry. The Gentry also apply themselves to serve the Church or State. Yet both Gentry and Commonalty are often given to Travel, and easily imbibe the Idioms of foreign Nati­ons. Their Parts are sprightly and active, yet nevertheless more apt for Imitation than Invention. Formerly the Poles were not much given to Trafick, but now, by the Ex­ample of their Neighbours who came to trade among them, they strive to outvy each other in Riches and Covetousness; yet for the most part they love to make a Show, and will ap­pear very splendid upon the least Occasions.

Worst part of their Character. For the worst Part of their Character we must observe with Barclay, that they run mad after Liberty, and rather drive than in­vite their Kings to observe their Laws. They not only hate the Name of Slavery, but likewise abhor a just and hereditary Monar­chy. The Gentry claim prerogatives that [Page 194] will scarce give them Leave to be guilty of any Crime, and whenever they happen to ac­knowledge any such, the Prince has seldom a Power to punish it. They are not only li­centious in their Morals and a civil Life, but likewise in Religion and sacred Observances, for without Fear of Ecclesiastical Censures, they will both talk and act as they please against that Function, affirming themselves self-sufficient to be their own Guides in those Matters.

Genius how enclin'd. Their Genius enclines them generally to Arms, tho' they fall far short of their ancient Glory, by reason there are now so few pub­lick spirited Persons among them, each ha­ving greater Regard to his own private Inte­rest and Gain, than either the Honour or Safety of his Country. Nevertheless not all have been of this Character, for several of latter Days have approv'd themselves worthy Patriots, and couragious Defenders of the Republick, and for the most part they are still good Soldiers, providing there appears any Money or other Reward to push them on.

Enur'd to Hardship. It is probable they would be almost invin­cible were they but well Disciplin'd, for they are so inur'd to Hardship, that they look up­on even the Germans to be an Effeminate Sort of People, not fitting to support the Fatigues of War, and the Rigour of Weather. The Polish Army has been known to lie encamp'd in the Snow, which it did in the Year 1663. for King Casimir set forth from Leopol in the Beginning of September, and did not return [Page 195] from the Frontiers of Moscovy till the Spring of the Year following.

Greedy of Money. The Poles are so very greedy of Money, that there is scarce any thing they will refuse to obtain it; but when they have once got it, tho they borrow it, they never think of Pay­ment or Restitution; nay, they will laugh at such as demand it of them, bidding them go use the same Means as they did to get it: This one would think should altogether in­terrupt Commerce and Trade; therefore it would not be here amiss to inform your Lord­ship how they Lend and Borrow in Poland.

Manner of Lending and Borow­ing. It must first be observ'd that Bonds and Obligations are of no Use there, for when the Gentlemen borrow of one another, they mortgage their Lands or Villages, and when they borrow of the Tradesmen or Merchants, they always leave Pledges, and besides pay 14 per Cent. which is allow'd by the Laws of the Land. But providing the Summ so bor­row'd be not paid within a Time prescrib'd, then is the Creditor at Liberty to dispose of the Pledge without any Account to be given.

Love to make a Fi­gure. As I observ'd before, the Poles love to make a Show, keeping a Multitude of Ser­vants, and great Store of Horses and Arms for that Purpose: But more especially, they affect to go splendidly cloath'd, yet still ra­ther according to their several Conditions than Qualities. They have formerly de­lighted much in foreign Modes, and their Soldiers, have been the first Introducers of [Page 196] their Fashions, for Example; when they had Wars with the Moscovites, according to the Mode of that Country, they wore large long Gowns, lin'd throughout with rich Furrs, as likewise very broad-brim'd and high-crown'd Hats. Afterwards when they were engag'd against the Turks in Valachia, they chang'd their Fashions to the Turkish and Tartarian Habits: And after that to the Suedish and German Modes, when they were in War with the Suedes in Prussia.

Their pre­sent Fashi­ons. Their present Fashion is, A Vest that reaches down to the middle of their Legs, with a long Robe, not unlike our Morning Gowns, lin'd with Furr, and ty'd about their Wastes with a Sash; Little Boots with Iron Heels, on their Legs, and Furr'd Caps upon their Heads with a Sabre or Cutlace girt about their Loins. When they appear on Horseback, which is one of their chief Delights, they wear besides all that has been mention'd, a short Cloak that hangs over their Shoulders, much like an Irish Mantle; which is most commonly Furr'd within and without.

What Furrs us'd. The better (that is the Richer) sort make use of the Furrs of Sables, which are brought from Moscovy, when the others content them­selves with the Skins of Tygers, Leopards, Panthers, and a kind of Grey Furrs. Some of the finest of these Furrs cost above a Thou­sand Crowns; but they are worn only at Diets, and descend from Father to Son. The Fashion the Women use, comes nearer to that of the Men than in most Countries.

[Page 197] Rusticks Habit in Lithuania. In Lithuania, the meaner sort make Shoes of Bark of Trees, which they wrap about, and put under the Soles of their Feet. These Shoes they call Chodakys. Of the tenderest Bark also they make Stockings, turning and winding it about the Calves of their Legs. Before they come into any Town, they always take care to put on fresh Chodakys. These every Countryman almost makes; so that it is commonly us'd as a Jest in Poland, That there are more Shoomakers in Lithuania, than in all Europe besides. The same People likewise wear a sort of Habit, with Sleeves woven all of a Piece. This they call Samodzialka. It is commonly Gray and very thick, and worn equally by Men and Women among the Ru­sticks.

A few fol­low the French Mode. Some few of the Poles imitate the French Fashion, and wear Linnen, Lace, Point, Pe­rukes, and Swords; for those who retain the Polish Habit, have no other Linnen but Shirts and Drawers, and some of them Socks. The ordinary sort of Gentry, and even some of the Great Men, put sifted Chaff into their Boots, which serves them instead of Socks. When I speak of the Poles wearing Linnen, I mean only the Gentry and Citizens; for the Peasants wear none at all, unless some by chance happen to have Shirts of Course Cloth.

The Womens former and late Fashi­ons. The Women formerly had only Garlands on their Heads, compos'd of Gold, Gems, Flowers, Silk, and the like; but now they wear Silk Caps lin'd with Furr, like the Men. [Page 198] They also formerly imitated the Women of Foreign Countries; and in the late Reign all the Women of Quality, particularly those that resided at Court, follow'd the French Mode, King John III's Queen being of that Nation. Never does the Price hinder their having fine things; for they suffer themselves to be Bubbled by Foreign Merchants (espe­cially French) at a ridiculous rate.

Poles great Extrava­gance. Both Women and Men are Extravagant to an infinite Degree; insomuch that some among them will have fifty Suits of Cloaths at once, all as Rich as possible; but what shews their Prodigality yet more is, that they will almost have their Servants go as well drest as them­selves; whereby they generally soon spend their Estates, and are reduc'd in a short time, to the extreamest Want. But this Prodigality of theirs does not only extend to their Habits, but likewise to their Buildings, Equipage, and other Customs. In their modern Build­ings, many of them imitate the Italians, tho' generally speaking indeed, their Houses are Small and Low, especially in the Country.

Description of their Houses. They never live above Stairs, and their Houses are not united: The Kitchin is on one side, the Stable on another, the House on another, and the Gate in the Front: All which make a Court either Square or Round. These Houses are for the most part of Wood, though the other sort are both of Brick and Stone.

[Page 199] Furniture. The Inside of their Houses is generally hung with Tapestry or Arras, and all the rest of their Houshold-stuff and Utensils, proportion­ably suitable: Yet towards Tartary, they do not much care to have any Furniture extraordinary for fear of the Incursions of that Barbarous People. Therefore in that part of Poland, the Gentry content themselves with a few small Beds with Taffeta Curtains, just enough to serve their Family; for if any go to Lodge at their Houses, they generally carry their Beds along with them.

No Gardens nor Orch­ards. The Polish Gentry have seldom any Gardens or Orchards to their Houses, though their Country be very proper for Fruit-Trees, whereby they might save the Expence of a great deal of Corn, which they consume in Beer, by making of Cider and Perry.

Private and publick Baths with their Ef­fects. Although it be extream Cold in Poland, yet will the Polish Gentry have almost every one a Bagnio in his House, in which the Women have their Apartments separate from the Men. There are likewise publick Baths in every City and Town for the use of the Common People; which they frequent not only in Summer, but also in Winter. From their frequent use of Baths, probably comes the reason that the Polish Children are seldom Scabby, either in Head or Face. It may be here also observ'd, that the Children in Po­land are seldom distorted, crooked, or ill­shap'd, as it often happens in other Coun­tries, because here they do not Swath their [Page 200] Children, but only wrap them loose in Linnen Clouts.

Poles great admirers of Shows. The Poles are generally so great Admirers of Splendour and Show, that their Women seldom stir out of Doors without a Coach and Six, though it be only cross the way, ei­ther to Church, or to Visit a Neighbour; but the Men for the most part go on Horseback, and rarely on Foot, which they look upon to be very Ignoble.

Their Aten­dants. Both Men and Women are always atten­ded with a great Number of Servants of both Sexes: The Women to wait on the Women, and the Men on the Men. The Principal Senators always Ride or Walk, in the middle of their Retinue, putting the best Cloath'd of their Servants before them. When the Gen­try of either Sex go abroad a Nights, they have twenty four or more Whitewax Flam­beaux carried before their Coach. Women of Quality generally have their Trains born up by He or She-Dwarfs. These Ladies have also with them an Old Woman, which they call their Governante; and an Old Gen­tleman for their Gentleman-Usher, whose Office is to follow their Coach on Foot, and to help them out of it when they Alight. It may be remark'd, that their Coaches go al­ways very slow and gravely.

Women ve­ry Modest. The reason of these two Old Peoples wait­ing on the Ladies, is not because their Hus­bands are Jealous, as in most of the Eastern Countries; for the Polish Ladies are generally [Page 201] very Modest; and do not at all abuse the great Liberty allow'd them.

Exception. But this Rule does not hold among the Common People; for Maids with them, ne­ver think themselves awhit the worse for be­ing unmarried Mothers: Nor is their Frailty any hinderance to their Fortune; for they soon Marry again, and thereby repair the Scandal. These sort of Grass-Widdows, most commonly serve for Nurses; for a Vir­tuous Marry'd Woman, though she be never so Poor, will hardly ever Nurse any Child but her own.

Women's Liberty re­strain'd. It may be observ'd, notwithstanding all these Honours done the Women in Poland, that they do neither keep the Purse, nor wear the Breeches; for when they have a mind to have any thing, they are oblig'd to ask their Husbands for it by Kneeling, Em­bracing his Knees, and calling him their Be­nefactor, except some few Trifles, of course allow'd them; As Butter and Eggs after the House is serv'd; and Flax ready hitchell'd by the Peasants; all which indeed they may dispose of without their Husband's Privity; but as to other Things they cannot: For the Man is the sole Manager of all Things in Po­land; and the Women have little more to do than to Eat, Drink, and Divert themselves.

Indifferences in the Po­lish Temper. As the Poles bear their own Losses, and suf­fer all Disasters with a great deal of Temper, so likewise they regard the Miseries and Mis­fortunes of others with the same Indifference, for they will often stand and see a House burn [Page 202] without offering in the least to lend a helping Hand to quench it. Neither are they more indulgent to their Children, or on the con­trary, the Children to their Parents, both whom are reciprocally suffer'd to continue Slaves to the Tartars, when but a small Summ of Money would purchase their Re­demption.

What Ex­ercises Pra­ctis'd. In Poland there are neither Academies nor Schools, for the Manege (Riding the Great Horse) Fencing nor Dancing, and yet the Gentry being naturally bent to those Exer­cises, will either Practise them at home after their own rude Fashion, or Travel to inform themselves of Strangers abroad. Of all these Pastimes, Musick and Dancing are their Dar­ling Pleasures; for even the very Nurses are order'd to teach their Children this last as soon as they can go. So that you shall often see two Children tripping it about a Room to the dull Notes of their Nurses, or a Ser­vants Pipes. The Poles are so addicted to Musick, that Barge-men may be frequently seen Playing on Fiddles as they Sail along the River Vistula with Corn.

The other Customs and Manners of the Poles I shall inform your Lordship of as me­thodically and succinctly as the Variety of Matter will admit. But first a word or two of the Polish Families and Names.

Polish Fa­milies and, The Gentry are divided into many Tribes, all distinguish'd, not by Places or Countries, but by several peculiar Appellatives and Coats of Arms: Out of every one of these, springs [Page 203] several Families of different Names and Affi­nity. For example, to the Tribe of Lelivicz, whose Standard is a Field Azure, charg'd with a New Moon in chief, and a Star of the first Magnitude between its Horns, belong the Families of Zarnowiski, Pileczki, Melstin, &c.

Names for­merly and now. Formerly the Poles had their Names from several occasions; but of latter days they have been accustom'd to take them only from Ca­stles, Cities, Towns and Villages, most com­monly by adding the Termination ski or ki, which signifies Son, though some say Domini­on, because they are generally so call'd from the Place which they Govern. In Lithuania the Termination for the most part is in witz, which rather implies Son than Ski. Sometimes also they take their Names from these Places by omitting Ski and Witz, and putting before the Place, à, ab, in, or de: As à Gorka, in Tenstin, de Fulstin, and the like. Some of the Poles usual Names are (which I mention for the difficulty of Pronunciation.) Chrzonstow­ski, Krzikritzki, Grzmialtowski, &c. Lastly, Several Names in Poland begin with an O, as Opalinski, Osolmski, Ʋzaorwski, Orzakowski, and such like.

Marriages and their duration. Now as to Marriages among the Poles, it must first be observ'd, that the Feasts of those of the Gentry always last three days, be they that make them either Poor or Rich; where­fore they must necessarily be exceeding Ex­pensive. If a Lady Marry any of her waiting Maids, she generally Expends as much as for one of her Daughters. But as the Court-Marriages [Page 204] will shew the greatest Magnificence of this kind, I shall entertain your Lordship out of Hauteville with one of that sort.

Court-Mar­riages. When the Queen Marries any of her Maids of Honour, or when any Senator or great Lord is to be Marry'd, the first and second day the King gives a great Feast. For this purpose a large Hall is pitch'd upon, where there are three Tables set out. At the first Table sit the King and Queen, in a Manner that they both Face the Hall. Next the Queen sit the Two that are to be Married; and next to the King the Popes Nuncio, and Archbishop of Gnesna. At the same Table likewise sit the Foreign Embassadors over against the King and Queen. At the two other Tables, ex­tending the whole length of the Hall, all the Ladies, Senators and Officers, except only such as wait on the King and Queen, are plac'd by an Officer, according to their respective Precedence.

Customs thereat. Most commonly this Feast begins about four or five of the Clock in the Afternoon, and lasts to two or three in the Morning. Here it may be observ'd that the Senators are accustom'd to rise often, and go up to the King's Table to drink his Majesty's Health on their Knees. At these Feasts they eat lit­tle, but drink Hungarian Wine to an immo­derate Degree. The Ladies, out of Mode­sty, only touch the Tops of the Glasses with their Lips, and so set them down before them, or pour them into their Plates, in a manner tha [...] more Wine is thought to be spils [Page 205] and lost here than drank. When they have sate about five or six Hours at Table, the Violins, and a little Sort of portable Organs begin to strike up, and then they spend the rest of the Time in Dancing. In this Exer­cise every body joyns, and not so much as the old People of either Sex are excus'd. Those that begin the Dance are generally the anci­ent Senators and old Ladies who move slowly about, like so many Fryars or Nuns in Pro­cession; but altho the Dancing begins with so much Gravity and Formality, yet it usually ends with a great deal of Hurry and Confusi­on.

Presents made the Bride. On the second Day all the Guests present the Bride with something new, and none give less than a small Piece of Plate. All these Presents are made before the Queen. This Ceremony is perform'd before they sit down to Table. These Presents most common­ly make a good Part of the Brides Portion. The late Princess of Poland, when she was marry'd to the Elector of Bavaria, had above the Value of 100000 Crowns presented her.

Espousals and Cere­monies. On the third Day are solemniz'd the Es­pousals: All the Wedding Guests accompa­ny the Bridegroom and Bride on Horse-back to Church, as likewise in their Return Home, when they are always to pass by the King's Palace. During all the Time of their coming and going, the Trumpets sound from the Balconies on both Sides the way. When the Bride has been conducted to her Hus­band's [Page 206] House, and a magnificent Feast there prepar'd is ended, and the Company gone, the Bride begins to fall a crying, it being the Custom it seems in Poland for Maids to weep at that time, and to seem concern'd for fear they should be thought impudent and im­modest. The other Marriages of the Gentry in Poland, are perform'd much after the same Manner, only with less Magnificence.

Who not Married without Dispensati­on. The Men and the Women that are Godfa­thers and Godmothers to Children, are always Cousins and Relations, tho they were not so before, and consequently cannot be marry'd without a Dispensation from the Bishop of the Diocess.

Burials and order of Procession. The Ceremonies of Burial in Poland are usually celebrated with so great Pomp and Magnificence, that one would rather take them for Triumphs than Enterments. The Corps having been put into the Coffin, it is plac'd in a Herse or Chariot with six Horses, all cover'd with black Housings, The Coffin has a large black Velvet Pall thrown over it, with a Cross of red Satin in the Middle, and six long black Silk Tassels hanging down from it, which are born up by as many of the deceas'd Person's Domesticks, all in close Mourning. Before the Chariot march several Priests, Monks, and a great Number of Peo­ple, each of which carries a white Wax Torch lighted in his Hand, next to whom, and immediately before the Herse come three Men on Horseback who carry the Arms [Page 207] of the deceased, one his Sword, another his Lance, and the third his Dart.

Other Pro­ceedings. The Procession thus set out, marches very slowly, in a manner that they usually come late to the Church. After the Burial-Service is over, those that carry'd the Armour enter the Church on Horse-back, and furiously ri­ding up to the Coffin, break the Arms of the deceas'd thereupon; after which the Body is Inter'd. Then they return to the House, where there is always a great Feast prepar'd, when the Lay-Guests will not only drink to Excess, but likewise force the Clergy to fol­low their Example.

Particulars relating to the King and Queens Enterment. Here it may not be amiss to observe some­thing relating to the Interment of the King and Queen of Poland. As soon as the King dies he is laid upon a Bed of State, and a certain Number of the Senators, both Ecclesi­astical and Temporal, are appointed to at­tend about his Corps. The Republick also orders all necessary Expences relating hereun­to, to be levied out of the Crown Revenues. A deceas'd Queen likewise has the same Cere­monies and Honours as a King; for Queen Mary Ludovica Wife to John Casimir, was carry'd from the Suburbs of Warsaw, where she dy'd, to the Castle where she lay in State, till she was carry'd to Cracow to be buried.

Cause of J. Casimir's Queens Death. It may not be improper to entertain your Lordship with the Manner of her Death, there being something observable in it. She dy'd of a Defluxion upon her Lungs, or of a [Page 208] Consumption, occasion'd by Excess of Passi­on, on Account of a Contest she had had with the Chancellour Patz about something she had propos'd to him which he would not consent to. This Princess lov'd so dearly to intermeddle with, and to govern the State solely according to her Fancy, that she was not a little jealous when the King her Hus­band spake to any other Women, and that chiefly for fear he might en [...]line to be go­vern'd by another more than her self. This your Lordship may imagine gave him no great Cause to be concern'd at her Death, for at the very Instant of her expiring, he posted away to a Mistriss he had formerly lov'd, but whom he durst not have spoke to du­ring his Queen's Life.

Manner of Mourning in Poland. As Mourning is not only a necessary Cir­cumstance, but also the Sequel of a Funeral, so I think my self oblig'd here to give some short Account of it. The Mourning of the Men is much like ours, only differing ac­cording to the Habits of the Country; but the Women of Quality are generally appa­rell'd in a Sort of coarse black Stuff, and their Linnen is not much finer than Canvass, and the greater the Quality, always the coarser the Linnen and Stuff. This Habit does not misbecome Widows that are both young and handsome. It may here be observ'd, that the Senators, Deputies, and all others that have a Mind to appear at the Diet of Election, must be in Black, tho' the Fashions of the se­veral Countries of Foreigners are not requir'd in like manner to be alter'd.

[Page 209] Edibles a­mong the Poles. For the other Customs of eating and drinking among the Poles, both at Feasts and elsewhere, they are various, but first I must give some Account of the Edibles and Pota­bles. Their ordinary Meat is Beef and Veal, for Mutton they do not value, and generally give it to their Servants. They have great Store of grey, but no red Partridges; a great many Hares, but no Rabits, for they would sooner eat a Cat than these last. They have 'tis true, some white Rabbets which they breed tame for the Sake of their Furrs. In Poland there are a great many Roe-bucks, but few Stags: Abundance of wild Boars, Hogs, Poultry, Pigeons, and the like: But as for wild-Foul, they have great Store in­deed in Summer, but none in Winter, as in other Countries, when they are best. They have a great many wild Oxen, which, when moderately salted, are great Dainties with them.

Way of Hunting wild Oxen. The Manner of hunting these wild Oxen it may not be improper here to give some short Account of; when they have surrounded the Beast with a great Number of Horsemen, each of them rides up to him and darts him with an Arrow, when the Beast feeling him­selfwounded, eagerly pursues its Enemy, while another Person darting him from be­hind, he turns in great Rage after that Per­son, and then another darting him, as like­wise many others successively; at length the poor Beast is so tir'd with pursuing so many Assailants, that he falls down and is easily [Page 210] taken or kill'd. They have another way of taking them in the Woods, which is by cau­sing the Rusticks to enclose a great Number of them with Trees feil'd down, who also im­mediately raise up a Stage for Spectators; when the Hunters, assigning themselves, eve­ry one a Post, and the Beasts being frighted into the Middle by Dogs and the great Voci­feration of the Assailants, as they move to­wards each Person, they are wounded with Darts, which making them to run with great Force against their Enemy, and finding an Opposition by the Trees, they endeavour to force their Way, whilst the Hunter from be­hind, most commonly gives them their Deaths Wound; but if they happen to break thro' then the next Hunter holds out a Piece of red Cloath, which it seems, this Beast having an Antipathy against, forthwith leaves that Person and runs at the other, who being pro­vided for him, most commonly kills him, or in Case of Danger, his Neighbour has Recourse to the aforesaid Stratagem which ne­ver fails of diverting the Fury of this wild Beast. It may be also observ'd that this Beast has a Power of drawing a Man to him with his Tongue, it being rough, if he can but reach any Part of his Coat, or the like.

Odd Dain­ties. Near the Mountains of Hungary, there are also wild Goats which they admire mightily for Meat. They likewise make a fine Dish, as they think it, of Beavers Tails, but throw away the Body. They likewise eat Bears Paws when pickled, for Dainties. When [Page 211] they take or kill Elks; they do not gut them for fourteen or fifteen Days afterwards, and sometimes in Winter, not in a whole Month. When the Great Men come to the Diet, they commonly bring these with their Skins and Guts, and hang them at their Windows some five or six at a Time, until they turn rank like Venison; then they roast some, and dress others like Beef a la mode. This is esteem'd delicious Meat, and none but Great Mens Tables have it. The Manner of taking Bears also I presume may not be unaccepta­ble to your Lordship.

Manner of taking Bears. They are generally taken with Nets, even tho' they be of the largest Size: When they have hamper'd one, all the Hunters ride in great Numbers about him, and having pinn'd down his Head and Feet with great wooden Forks, they bind him every way about with strong hempen Cords that he is not able to stir, then they roul him into a great wooden Cage, but it must be understood that the Knots of the Cords are so contriv'd, that with one artful Pull they may be unloos'd, af­ter which the Bear is kept so shut up till they have a mind to let him forth, by lifting up a Trap Door, to be hunted.

Other sorts of Fowl. In Poland likewise they have a great many Heath-Cocks, most of which are of the Big­ness of a Capon: There are also abundance of Pheasants in Lithuania, and of Bustards in Prussia. They have moreover about Lowitz, a little Bird not unlike a large Sparrow, which comes and disappears with the Snow, [Page 212] and thence is call'd a Snow-Bird. These are very agreeable to the Taste. As for tame-Fowl, the Poles never eat any but such as is brought alive into their Kitchins in the Morning and kill'd for Dinner.

What Fish they have. For Fish, the Baltick being the only Sea that borders upon Poland, has scarce any, but that Defect is abundantly supply'd by the great Plenty of fresh Water Fish, both in their Lakes and Rivers; some Sorts whereof are not to be found in other Countries. It may be observ'd, that those which are taken out of Rivers, are more palatable than those bred in Lakes and the Sea.

Way of or­dering Cab­bage. The Poles have a peculiar way of ordering Cabbage. They chop it small, and put it in­to a Tub between Lays of Salt, then they press it very hard, and after pour warm Wa­ter upon it, which makes it ferment▪ and serves for Pickle: Thus they preserve it all Winter, and sometimes for a whole Twelve­month. Tho' this Dainty of theirs smells very strong at a Distance, yet do they ne­vertheless think it good Meat.

Their Po­tables. Their Potables are of different Kinds, but their usual Drink is Beer, which in Prussia is made only of Malt, but in the rest of Poland, with Wheat ground small, and boyl'd with Hops; sometimes they mixt Spelt (a Kind of Wheat in Italy and Flanders) and Oats along with it▪

[Page 213] Beer of what Qua­lity. Their Beer is generally of an Amber Co­lour, and of a brisk and poignant Sweetness, especially that of Varka, or that which the Gentry make for their private Use, which is stronger and better than the Brewers fell.

Sorts of Mead. In Lithuania, Russia, and Ʋkrania, they have two Sorts of Liquor made with Honey which are red and white, both which they call Mead, tho'we give that Name only to the latter, the former with us being Methe­glin: Prussia and Masovia also has some Ho­ney, tho' at Warsaw it is made after a pecu­liar Manner, by mixing Juice of Cherries and Blackberries, as likewise Aromaticks along with it, and thence has the several differing Names of Kerstrang, Malinicz, and Troi­nicz.

And of Wine. Besides Beer and Mead, both the Poles and Lithuanians have several Sorts of Wine brought from Hungary, Italy, France, and Germany: That of Hungary excels the Spanish in Strength, and is brought to Cracow over the Carpathian Mountains in large Casks drawn by Oxen. The best is sold at twenty Shillings a Polish Pot, which amounts to no more than three of our Quarts, so that we may reasonably believe that the poorer Sort are oblig'd to obstain from so costly a Li­quor. The Italian Wine is brought likewise over-Land, but not drank so much as the other, by reason of its Lushiousness and Price, being brought much farther. The French and Rhenish Wines come by way of the Baltic [Page 214] to Dantzic. These, as they are naturally weaker than the former, so they lose much of their Strength by coming by Sea. As to the Rhenish Wine, that seldom goes much beyond Dantzic, altho' some be sold in other Parts of Prussia, yet which they always drink with Sugar, by Reason of its Sharp­ness.

What strong Wa­ters. Strong Waters in Poland are generally Spirits drawn from Wheat, Barley, Oats, Sider, &c. and mixt with Water, but these are only drank by the common People, un­less in Winter, when the Gentry likewise drink them, but they then are rectify'd with Aniseeds and other Aromaticks.

Customs in Eating and Drinking. For their Customs in eating and drinking, it must be observ'd, that they seldom or ne­ver eat any Breakfasts, and do not care for cold Meat. In the Mornings both Men and Women generally drink Ginger, Yolks of Eggs and Sugar boyl'd in Beer. They are immoderate Lovers of Pig roasted, tho' their Sauces have commonly an odd Taste. The Great Men seldom dine without a Dish of Peas and yellow rusty Bacon slic'd, which it seems they prefer. They eat all manner of Mushrooms, not excepting those that cleave to the Trees, which they gather and dry, to preserve them. Those of above a Nights Growth, we commonly esteem Poyson, and which perhaps may be so here and not there, no more than Poppy Seeds, which they like­wise eat in great Quantities, for they drink the Milk of them, as also make it into several [Page 215] Sauces or Dishes by it self. They also make abundance of Oyl of this Seed, as likewise of Hemp and Flax Seeds, &c. which they eat on fasting Days.

Potage and Sauces. They seldom eat any Potage, unless what the French Cooks make, which they will feast on with a great deal of Pleasure. They do not boil their Meat over much, and that gives it the better Relish. Their Sauces also differ extreamly from ours; some whereof are yellow and made with Saffron; others white, consisting chiefly of Cream; a third Sort grey, being of Onyons; and a fourth black, being made with the Juice of Plums. Into these Sauces they put a great Quantity of Sugar, or sometimes Pepper, Cynamon, and sometimes Ginger, Cloves, Nutmeg, Olives, Capers, Kernels of Pine Apples, and Prunes. Their Fish Sauces excel both ours and the French. The Poles use Spices to that Degree, that some Great Men have been found to spend above fifty thousand Livres a-Year in that single Commodity: They do not want for all Sorts of choice Potherbs, and some that are not to be found elsewhere. They have also Sweet-Meats of various Kinds, and all Manner of Deserts, especially Pistacho Nuts.

Poles eat little Bread. The Poles generally eat a great deal of Meat to a very little Bread, altho they have such Plenty of Corn in Poland, especially Rye, which is much better than in other Countries. They are great Admirers of [Page 216] Roots, which they dress different Ways, and very palatably.

Crachat how made. They have a Sort of Dish which they call Crachat, and which is made of the coarse Meal of Wheat, Barley, Millet, or Oats, or sometimes of a small Grain call'd by them Manna. This Crachat is very good when well dress'd. On Flesh Days they eat it with Milk and Butter, and on Fasting Days only with Oyl: But notwithstanding there are some who dispense with this Rule, espe­cially on Saturdays. The common People, for want of Wheat or the like, are accu­stom'd to make Bread of Acorns dry'd and ground.

Customs at Feasts. When the Poles make a Feast, they never serve at Table either Spoons, Knives, or Forks, but the Guests are to bring those along with them, or their Servants for them. They also have a broad Piece of starch'd Lin­nen to serve for Napkins, sow'd round the Table Cloath for fear it should be stollen away. The Guests being set down at Table, immediately the Gates of the House are shut, and are not open'd till all the Company are risen, and the Plate taken Account of and lock'd up; for should it be otherwise, the Footmen are generally so light-finger'd, that they would infallibly Nim some of it, and this is the Reason also why they do not lay Spoons, Knives and Forks on the Table.

Banquet­ting Hall. Every Person of any Fashion, has his Ban­quetting Hall in his House, peculiarly set [Page 217] a part for Feasts and Entertainments. Here there is a Place made up with Ballasters for the Side-board Table, from which the Cloath is never taken till it is very dirty, being al­ways loaded with a great Quantity of Plate. Over this Place there is a Gallery for Musick, usually consisting of Violins and Organs.

Particulars of Servants. Those that are invited, always bring their Footmen along with them, to whom, as soon as they are seated, they cut half their Bread, and as much Meat, and give it over their Shoulders. This Servant being thus provided, stands and eats what is given him behind his Master. If the Master asks twice for Wine, the Servant brings him as much again, and, after his Master, drinks out of the same Glass without rincing. Altho' there are great Quantities of Victuals brought from the Kitchin, yet do they rarely carry any back, for the Servants immediately seize on what is left, and their Ladies make them car­ry each of them a Napkin to prog for dry'd Sweet-meats or Fruit.

Manners at Table. After the Cloath is taken away, the Poles are accustom'd to sit a good while drinking. The Genteelest Part of them, at least, have a very decent way of eating. They never once touch the Meat with their Hands, but carve with so great Address, that they dex­terously cut a Partridge into six Parts in a Trice, holding it on the End of a Fork. While they are eating they mind nothing else, and tho' any body sends in for them, they never stir from Table till they have done. [Page 218] After their Meals they generally take a Pipe of Tobacco, as the Custom is with us and other Countries, the Manner whereof may not be unpleasant to be related.

Poles way of taking Tobacco. They generally smoak Tobacco without injuring either their Heads or Stomachs, and that by these Means: They have a Pipe stuck thro' a little round Box, into which they have before put Sponge that had been soak'd in distill'd Vineger; this Sponge, by means of a few little Holes thro' the Pipe, commu­nicates its Mildness to the Smoak, and be­sides sucks away all the Oyl of the Tobacco, whereby the Heat is exceedingly lenify'd, and the Pleasure of smoaking consequently im­prov'd. When they would render smoaking Tobacco yet more agreeable over and above this lenifying the Heat, they have a way of persuming the Smoak, by placing another Box of a lesser Size than the former, nearer to the Bowl of the Pipe, wherein they are wont to put Cotton dipt into some Sort of Essence, which by means of the like Holes made as before within that Box, and thro' the Pipe transmits its odoriferous Quality to the Smoak. They generally place this Box five Inches from the Bowl of the Pipe, and the other as many more.

Feasts made by turns. These Feasts are made alternatively by every Friend and Relation that are Neigh­bours, whether Men or Women; for it must▪ be understood that the Poles converse freely with the Female Sex, without occasioning them any Scandal, and especially where the [Page 219] Women are young, if they have but their Parents or nearest Relations along with them. By these Means Matches are fre­quently promoted and Friendships propaga­ted or continu'd. Nevertheless sometimes, by immoderate tipling, intestine Jars arise, and bloody Broils ensue; yet that Master of a Feast will always be esteem'd an unreasona­ble Niggard that does not allow his Guests wherewithal to work them up to such a Pitch.

Brimmers much pra­ctis'd. Those we call Brimmers are very much in Request among the Poles, for they will scarce ever excuse a Man unless he pledges them Su­per-naculum. This Vice reigns equally in Feasts and Taverns, and Saints Days, are not excepted out of their Drunkards-Calendar, which is notwithstanding wink'd at and tole­rated on Account of the great Revenues and Excise it brings to the State. However, now a-days this Custom is not so much in Practice among the better Sort of Gentry as formerly, yet they all still retain their anci­ent Luxuries of other Kinds.

Customs in Traveling. The Customs and Manners of travelling in Poland, with other Circumstances, come next to be inspected. It must first be under­stood, that there are scarce any Inns in this Country, except those the Natives call Karczma's, where Travellers are oblig'd to lodge with the Cattle.

Description of Inns. Those Inns, or rather long Stables, are all built up with Boards, and cover'd with Straw. [Page 220] Within there is no Furniture, neither are there any Windows, but all the Light comes in either at Holes made by the Weather, or the Crevices of ill join'd Boards. 'Tis true, at the further End they have a little Chamber with a Fire-Hearth, but then there is no lodging in it, because of the Flyes, Fleas, Bugs, and especially the noisom Smells that incommode it; for if they happen to have a little Window there, yet do they never open it tho' the Weather be never so hot; so that Strangers choose rather to lye in the aforesaid Stable, where the Gospodarz or Inn-Keeper lodges himself with his whole Family, than to be suffocated by the Stink and Smell of so close and small a Room. In the long Room likewise there is an intolerable Smell, occasi­on'd by a Parcel of rotten Cabbages, which those People always keep by them: And this, tho' it may be agreeable enough to the Na­tives who are us'd to it, yet to Strangers it must needs be very offensive.

Have few Convenien­cies. In these Inns or Stables, there are no Ta­bles or Beds, except one of the last in the lit­tle Room before mention'd, but however scarce any body cares to lye in it, because they can have no Sheets but what are very coarse, and have been often lain in before; neither is the Straw in the Stable much bet­ter, because, even of that, every Company can't have fresh, for the Gospodar, after his Guests are gone, generally gathers it up and preserves it for New-Comers, yet it is still preferable to the Bed, by Reason that he most commonly Airs it after it has been us'd. [Page 221] All along this Karczma or Inn, there are great Numbers of wooden Pins fixt for Tra­vellers to hang up their Cloaths, Portman­tues, &c. This Sort of bad Accomodation many avoid by lying in Barns, where they get fresh Straw.

Travellers oblig'd to carry Pro­visions, &c. By Reason of this ill Entertainment on the Roads, all Travellers in this Country are ob­lig'd to have a Calash with two Horses, wherein they must carry all their Necessaries and Provisions. Their Beds, Quilts, Bol­sters, Sheets, and the like, are generally put into a large Serge Bag, which afterward serves them instead of a Seat in the Calash. Also they must provide a Case for Bottles of what Drink they please, and a Basket with a Lid for their Meat, Bread, &c. They must moreover furnish themselves with every indi­vidual thing that they may have occasion for, and take care to renew what they have ex­hausted whenever they have the first Oppor­tunity, for there is scarce any thing to be had in these Karczma's but that indifferent Lodg­ing I mention'd.

Travelling cheap in o­ther re­spects. Thus your Lordship may perceive that one that travels in Poland, must as it were carry his whole House along with him, and besides undergo not a few Incommodities to boot. However, when a Man is thus provi­ded, he may travel at a very inconsiderable Expence; for Lodging (as indeed it ought not) costs but very little, and there is no­thing to pay for any thing else, because it can't be got, the Reason I suppose being [Page 222] that the Gentry of the Country never offer to pay for what they call for, and there is no way to force them to it; so that where they ask for any thing, the Gospodar always puts them off with a Nie Masz, that is, I have no­thing: Yet nevertheless when they have any thing to spare, they will freely give Part of it to Strangers, tho' generally, there being but few Travellers in that Country, they provide only for their own Families: When Foreigners happen to want for Provisions, they usually apply themselves to the Dvour, or Lord of the Village, who forthwith supplies them gratis.

Poles man­ner of Tra­velling. Poland being for the most part a Champagne Country, a Galash and two Horses will rid a great deal of Ground there in a Day. Some of the Poles are so provident as to drive their own Calashes themselves, but of these there are but few. When they come to the Inn, they commonly put their Horses to Grass, because the Gospodarz will not be easily induc'd to trust them for Hay. There are some like­wise that travel on Horseback with a Quilt for their Bed about a Foot and half broad, laid under their Saddle. They commonly employ the Gospodarz to fetch them in Beer, Bread, and whatever else they have Occasion for, and which Service they must not refuse to do for them at their Peril. Travelling is here so easie to the Gentry, that it costs them little or nothing.

Incommodi­ties in Tra­vel how re­medy'd. A Traveller would do well to take more than ordinary Care in passing over Bridges in [Page 223] this Country, because they are generally very bad and seldom repair'd. In VVinter there is no travelling without a Case for ones Feet, the Air being excessive sharp and keen. This Case is generally a furr'd Sack, tho' Horse­men content themselves with thick Boots, having some Straw in them to keep their Feet warm. They also take a good large Sip of Strong VVaters before they mount. In passing over the Ice, especially when there is Snow upon it, one must take care to procure a Sledge to put the Calash or Coach in, which is always drawn by Horses.

Disturb'd a Winter Nights by Boors. In VVinter likewise one shall find it a hard Matter to rest a-nights, especially on Holy­days, because then all the Peasants of the Vil­lage are gather'd together to Carouse and make merry in that Room where you are ob­lig'd to lodg for want of a Fire elsewhere, for at that Time there is no sleeping without; Nay, as I said before, scarce with it, tho' a Man be commonly very weary when he comes off a Journey, these Drunkards mak­ing such a continn'd Din in your Ears with their excessive singing and dancing about the Room.

Danger of losing Noses. I should have observ'd to your Lordship, that sometimes in VVinter Travellers Noses are frozen with the extream Cold, when they must take immediate Care to apply Snow to them, for should they suddenly enter into a warm Room without so doing, they might, for ought I know, endanger losing them.

[Page 224] Manners of peculiar Countries. Before I conclude this Account of the Cu­stoms and Manners of the Poles, I might rea­sonably inform your Lordship of the Manners both ancient and modern, of the Lithuanians, Samogitians, Prussians, &c. especially where they differ from those of the other Parts of Poland.

Concerning Lithuania. That we are descended from the ancient Ro­mans (says Michalon a Lithuanian Author) is past Doubt, since our Language is almost half Latine, and we not long since had the same Cu­stoms and Ceremonies, as burning the Dead, di­vining by Augurs, and such like Superstitions: Nay, which we still retain (continues he) in many Parts of this Country, especially by worship­ing the God Esculapius under the Form of a Ser­pent. This Author reckons up a great many VVords which have the same Signification at present in Lithuania, as they had formerly in Rome. He thinks likewise the Romans Ex­pedition into this Country was under Julius Caesar, and vouches Florus for a Proof. He also is of Opinion, that the Cause of this Country's being call'd The Great Dutchy, proceeds from the great Number of Dukes in­habiting therein.

What re­lates to Courts of Justice there. As to what relates to the Courts of Justice in Lithuania, the tenth Part of the thing adjudg'd in all real Actions, goes always to the Judge's Box, thence call'd Peressud (a close Chest) which is immedi­ately to be paid down in Court: But in per­sonal Actions, he claims half the Damages [Page 225] given to the Plaintiff. Murther, &c. is pu­nish'd by Mulct only, in like manner as in Poland: If the Murtherer fly, 'tis usual to preserve the dead Carcass, for that he can­not be condemn'd till he has been shewn the Body of the Person he has slain. Also a Judge here has all stollen Goods where-ever found.

Former Judges. These Judges are now appointed to be the same as they are in Poland, tho' there were formerly but two in all Lithuania, both Pala­tins, and who had no peculiar Place of Resi­dence assign'd, so that all that had Business with them, were oblig'd to follow them, tho' never so far distant; but these Palatins had their Deputies, who were accustom'd to sit and adjudge Differences at publick Feas [...] but who nevertheless had always greater Re­gard to the filling of their Peressud, than ei­ther to the Justice or Innocence of the Person offended or offending. Other Particulars re­lating to these Matters I have omitted for Brevity's sake (altho' for the most part they differ from the Laws of other Countries) presuming they might not probably be ac­ceptable to your Lordship and the Publick. But I must take notice of the Gentry and Ci­tizens of Lithuania, &c. and so shall proceed to the Rusticks.

Of the Gen­try and Citizens. First then it must be understood, that the Lithuanian Gentry were chiefly owing for their Privileges to Jagello King of Poland, and to Alexander his Successor in Lithuania; both which Princes, that they might the bet­ter [Page 226] bring the Natives to embrace the Christi­an Faith, bestow'd on their Nobility the same Liberty and Privileges as the Polish Gen­try enjoy'd. Russia also and Podolia had the same Privileges granted them at the same time, and Prussia likewise had great Immuni­ties added to its ancient Privileges by Cast­mir IV. whose Assistance it had implor'd against the Teutonic Knights. As for the Ci­tizens of Lithuania, Samogitia, and Russia, they are much on the same Foot with the other Parts of Poland, only those of Prussia are preferr'd in many Cases, as has been ob­srev'd before.

Rusticks and their Condition. The Country People in Lithuania, &c. are rather more miserable than in Poland, for a Gentleman there, attended by a Troop of Servants, will commonly go into a Country-Man's House, and take all he has from him, misusing and beating him shamefully into the Bargain; in which, or any other Case, if the Rustick applies himself to his Lord for redress, he must not come empty handed; and tho' he does not, yet all the Favour he shall obtain, will be to have his Case recom­mended to the Starostas and other Officers, where he must fee again, so that he is gene­rally unable to go through with the great Charge of getting himself reveng'd.

Work on Sundays. Whereas these poor Wretches work but three or four Days in a Week for their Lords in Poland; in Lithuania, &c. they commonly work five or six, Mondays only being allow'd to themselves, and in case they have Occasi­on [Page 227] for them that Day, then they work on Sundays for themselves, for these Boors ob­serve no manner of Holy-Days: Yet this Custom is more peculiar to Russia; for if one should ask a Slave there Why he works on Sun­days, he would answer by a Question, If he must not eat on Sundays.

Pay rigid Duties, &c. These poor Wretches, out of their scanty Gettings, generally pay rigid Duties three or four Times a Year, to the State, besides being oblig'd to satisfie the frequent and arbitrary Impositions of their Lords. If a Slave happens to be condemn'd to Death by his Lord for any Crime, he must be his own Executioner, or will be forc'd to it by Threats of a worse Punishment than hang­ing.

Their Edi­bles and Custom at grinding Corn. The Bread they usually live upon, is a coarse black Sort, made of Rye, sooty Wheat, and Barley Ears, all ground toge­ther. Their Meat is both Flesh, Fish, and Fowl, and what Cattle or Poultry they fore­see they shall not be able to keep in VVinter, they usually kill in Autumn, and preserve with Salt. They are for the most part good Marks-men, and maintain their Families in a great measure that way. To grind their Corn they have in every House in the Coun­try, four or five Hand-Mills. VVhile they are at work, they sing continually, and of­ten repeat the VVord Melior, which in their Language signifies the same as in Latine, thereby implying, as I suppose, that their Condition is still better than a worse. They [Page 228] have also a Sort of very long wooden Pipes, which when they found, they always make the Standers by deaf, and usually so grate their Ears, that they do not recover their Hearing in a good while.

Their Ha­bits. The Rusticks of Lithuania, Samogitia, &c. wear generally a coarse ash-colour'd Habit, insomuch that scarce one in a Hundred is to be seen otherwise cloath'd. For their Legs, they have a kind of Bark-Buskins, as I have observ'd before.

Carriages, and how made. These Peasants have a Sort of Chariots or VVaggons, all of VVood, and very light, which they make by raddling or interweav­ing Boughs with one another. They have commonly a Covering of the same Fashion, but the VVheels of this Machine are of one flat and entire Piece of VVood turn'd round. In a VVord, they are not much unlike our Colliers or Lime-burners Carts, that may be frequently seen in the Country. VVhen any Number of these Chariots are going together, they make an intolerable squeaking Noise, by reason that their Axel Trees are never greas'd. These Sort of Chariots are much in Use also among the Russians, as may be learnt from the Poet.

Houses. The Houses these Peasants inhabit in, are built round, and thence call'd by them, Tow­ers. They are narrow and open at Top that the Smoak and Stink might go out, and they are generally cover'd with Boards, Straw, or Bark of Trees. Here Men, with their Families and Cattle, live together; by which means it often happens that both are alternatively mischiev'd.

Employ­ments within and without Doors. The Employments these People busie themselves in are various, whereof one be­longing to the Men in VVinter, is to help to stuff Feather beds made of chop'd Feathers, and Stalks that grow in the Marshes. These Beds must needs make the most drowzy not a little vigilant. Part of the VVomens Business within Doors, is to weave Coarse Cloath. Both their Employments without, belongs either to Husbandry or Houswifry, as in other Countries.

Why little Horses, here. The Reason why they have generally little Horses, Guagnini thinks is because of the ex­cessive Cold that reigns there, yet, says he, [Page 230] they are not a little strong, for one of them carry'd me above a hundred and twenty Polish Miles in four Days.

Qualifica­tions for Marriage. Among these People, a Maid never marries till she is twenty four or thirty Years of Age, when she must also have wrought with her own Hands several Baskets full of Cloaths of different Kinds, which at the Time of her Espousals, she is to distribute among the Guests that her Husband brings along with him: She likewise must have serv'd her Mo­ther in all Domestick Affairs for a certain Time. The same Rule holds in Respect of a Son. Another Observation may not be omitted, that those who are employ'd to make the Match, always enquire more strictly into the Manners and Behaviour of the Persons, than after the Cattel and Corn that they enjoy.

Character of these Rusticks. The Character of these People is, that they are good natur'd, honest, and exceed­ing chaste, for rarely any Quarrels, Robbe­ries, Rapes, or Incests are to be met with among them. The young VVenches are so extreamly reserv'd, that they will draw a Knife at a Man that but offers to kiss them: And besides, their Mothers have a very watchful Eye over them, for they make them wear little Bells before and behind, to give them Notice where they are, and what they are doing.

[Page 231] Samogitia differs from Lithuania. The Samogitian Peasants differ but little from the Lithuanian, however some Peculiars there are to be observ'd.

First, The Rusticks of Samogitia are not so laborious as those of Lithuania, and conse­quently have not that Plenty of Provisi­ons, &c. therefore instead of Bread, they are accustom'd to eat a Sort of great Turnips as big as ones Head, which grow of them­selves without sowing.

Next, They have a peculiar way of mak­ing Mead, Metheglin, and Beer; for they are want to quench several red-hot Stones in it successively, after it has been boyl'd a whole Night, to make their Bellies soluble. This Drink they put into Vessels made of Bark of Trees.

Sturdy Drinkers rewarded. Thirdly, They have a Custom of reward­ing a sturdy Drinker, by presenting him with a Shirt, Frock, Handkercheif, and the like.

Fourthly, They live to a greater Age than ordinary in Samogitia, for it is no wonder to see a Person of a hundred, or a hundred and twenty Years old there, which may be part­ly manifested by a Passage which happen'd while a Monk was preaching about the Crea­tion of the VVorld, at the Time of Jagel­lo's Expedition to convert hsi Countrey­men.

[Page 232] Proof of great Age. This Man is a notorious Lyar (said one of the Pagans, addressing himself to the King, and interrupting the Monk) I, and many more among us, have liv'd for above these hun­dred Years, and yet never remember any such thing as he speaks of, for even from the Time that we were Boys, the same Seasons and Vicissitudes have continu'd: To which the King mildly re­ply'd. Father, you say true, neither has the Priest affirm'd an Ʋntruth, for these things he speaks of, happen'd many Hundred Years ago, long before your Time, when the World was as­suredly made out of nothing by a divine Ordinati­on and Power. I conceive, My Lord, this may as well serve for an Argument of their Ignorance as of their Longevity.

People more robust here. Fifthly, Their Character differs some­thing from the Lithuanians, for they are, ge­nerally speaking, more robust, bold, and nimble, and the Defence and Arms they use, are for the most part a Coat of Mail and a Hunter's Javelin.

Sixthly, No Part of Poland produces so much Honey, for here almost every Tree contains a Swarm of Bees. It is observable also, that the Honey of this Country is more free from Wax than elsewhere.

I shall now entertain your Lordship with a few remarkable Customs in Husbandry pe­culiar to these two Countries, and wherein I will be as brief as I am sensible that Art is not much either known or esteem'd, being ap­propriated [Page 233] chiefly to vulgar Conditi­ons.

Manners in Husbandry. It may be observ'd, that these People plow, sow, and harrow, all at the same Time, and that their Ground having been but once fecundated with burning, will bear great Crops seven or eight Years together without dunging. When they burn the Woods on the Lands, if they meet with high Trees, they do not cut them down, but only prune off their side Branches, so that the Sun may not be kept from the Ground, the manner of doing which is uncommon, for one Peasant will prune above a thousand Trees together without so much as once coming down.

Strange way of Pruning Trees. To effect this, he provides himself of a Seat of Rope, much like a Stirrup, the which he fastens to a long Cord, and having cast it over an Arm of the Tree, a Boy that is on the Ground draws him up and down, and when he has so done, by Help of another Cord, easily transfers him to the next Tree. This Peasant has always a Hook by his Side, with which he uses to lop off the Branch­es.

Peculiar manner of Sowing. They have moreover another odd and pe­culiar Way of sowing in these Countries, which is by mixing two Parts of Barley with one of VVheat, and putting them into the Ground together in the Spring, whereby it happens, that the Barley may be mow'd on [Page 234] one Harvest, and the VVheat reap'd the next. This VVheat being trod down by those that mow the Barley, the next Harvest commonly comes up so thick and high, that there is scarce any passing thro' it for Fear of being stifled.

Ways of or­dering Corn. In Time of VVar these Boors have a VVay of securing their Corn, &c. by burying it in a Place made up under Ground with Posts and Bark of Trees for that Purpose. Their Way of ordering their Corn is also extraordinary, for they first dry it with Smoak before they lay it up in their Graneries, by which means it will keep good for several Years toge­ther.

Peculiar Customs in Prusia. As for the Prussians, both Gentry and Commonalty, they may likewise be consi­der'd by themselves in some Respects, for the former are not altogether so gaudy in their Habits, as the more Southern Parts of Poland, and the latter differ something from the Polish Peasants in their Habits, wear­ing sometimes long strait Coats of Lea­ther.

Habitati­ons and Furniture. Formerly the Prussians dwelt in Waggons or in Huts made of Boughs twisted together, and at this Day the Commonalty are not much improv'd in Architecture, for they ge­nerally live in Hovels built with Stakes, and raddled with Rods, having either Earth or Fern for their Covering: Neither is there [Page 235] any great Improvement in their Furniture, for the old Prussian slept on the Ground, or on Skins of Beasts, and these lye upon the Straw.

Meat and Drink. They are naturally content with spare Diet, and addicted more to Sloath than Gluttony: Yet, like the Poles and Li­thuanians, no ordinary Dose of Drink suf­fices them, especially at Feasts, where they will frequently get very Drunk. Heretofore their Drink was Water or Mares Milk, mix'd sometimes with Blood, and now for the most part it is Mead or Beer. Their Ordinary Food is Fish, and they never knew the Use of Roots be­fore the Teutonick Order came amongst them, tho' now among the Peasants it is the Chief of their Dainties. I speak most of this of the Peasants of Prussi­a, for the Gentry generally agree in their Customs and Manners with the Poles.

These, My LORD, are all the Particulars I could possibly meet with, relating to the several Subjects propos'd to be addrest to your Lordship, and which I must humbly acknowledge I have hastily put together, without that due Order and Method which I ought to have done: Yet, in Regard, my Helps were not a little confus'd, I hope your Lordship will be pleas'd to pardon the ill Performance, as well as the Presumption [Page 236] of Inscribing them to You; Grant­ing me the Honour to subscribe my self,

[Page 1] LETTER VI.
To his Grace, JAMES Duke of Ormond, One of his Majesty's Lieutenant-Generals.

YOUR constant Fatigues and vast Ex­pences during the late bloody War, discover both an undoubted Zeal to serve your Country, and a Natural Inclination, like that of your Noble Ancestors to Warlike Atchive­ments. Wherefore, being to treat of the Military Affairs in Poland, I thought no Per­son more proper to address my Account to than your GRACE, tho' I were well assured at the same time, that it is most impossible to give you any tolerable satisfaction therein, unless I my self had more Experience in those Matters, or the Poles had a better Discipline in their Army. But since they must own their Defect in the one, as I do ingenuously confess my Ignorance in the other, I hope your Grace will be pleased to accept this Letter, rather as a Proof of my endeavours to entertain your Leisure, than of any Presumption I had to lay down any thing which might in the least con­tribute or add to the Knowlege of a General Officer of your Experience.

[Page 2] MY LORD,

The Pospo­lite or Po­lish Mili­tia. In the Infancy of the Polish Empire, the Poles were rather forc'd by an Arbitrary Pow­er, than commanded by indulgent Laws, to defend their Country and extend its Limits; but since Christianity has been received a­mong them Bolestaus Chrobry, their first King, ordain'd a certain number of Horse out of every Palatinate and District, and a set com­pany of Foot out of every City and Town, to be ready at a short warning, and to bring their Provisions and Ammunition along with them. This is what they call their Pospolite Ruszenie, or the whole Body of Militia of the Kingdom gathered together under one Head or General, at a place and time appoin­ted by the King, and those of the Senate that are always to attend him as his Privy-Council.

Who oblig­ed to serve in the Horse. To this General Expedition, first, all Landed Gentry, as well Publick as Private, a few on­ly excepted, which I shall name hereafter, are obliged to come. 2. All Gentry that live in Cities or Towns upon Usury, or otherwise. 3. All Citizens that enjoy Lands or Tenements. These, besides all in Prussia, are those of Cra­cow, Vilna, and Leopol. 4. All Tenants that have hired Lands are to go themselves or to send out others. 5. The Kings Tenants. 6. Ecclesiastical Scultets, or Advocates. 7. In cases of imminent danger, all Citizens in gene­ral are ordered either to send or go themselves. 8. Even those Gentry that are clapt up in Jails for hainous Crimes, are to be let out to assist at the Pospolite, yet when that is once o­ver, they are to return to Prison again, to ex­piate [Page 3] the whole extent of their Sentence.

Who in the Foot, and Penalty for neglect in both. All these are to be Horse, well accoutred, but as an Army cannot be compleat without some Foot, this Pospolite also did consist for­merly of the 20th Boor out of every Village, or rather Farm, who was to be arm'd with a Scymitar, long Gun, and Pole-Ax, but which is often now chang'd to a Mulct to hire For­reigners: Yet there are still some Polish Foot, tho' of small Esteem. Every Citizen that is now worth 8000 Florens, is to find a Horse, and he that has only 4000 is to set out a Foot-Sol­dier well provided. The Boors also are to fit out one among 28 Families, and to furnish him with Provisions sufficient for half a Year. The Poles term both these Wybrancy's, that is, Pick'd or Selected Men, so that Wybraniecka Piechota is a Pick'd Soldier. If any of all these refuse to appear upon the third Summons, their Lands or Goods are immediately confis­cated to the King's Use.

Who are excused from serv­ing. Those Gentry that are excus'd from appear­ing at the Pospolite, are, 1. Such as may de­pute others in their Room, viz. Superannua­ted or Sick Persons, Widows, Orphans, Mi­nors, and lastly the Clergy for their Tempo­ralities. When any Publick or Private No­bleman is Sick, he must notisie and attest it by the Oaths of several sufficient Witnesses. Also it must be observ'd, that in Lithuania a Clergy man must send out both for his Spiri­tual and Temporal Estate, as likewise in Po­land, where there are any Temporal Lands an­nex'd to his Benefice. 2. Those that have E­states in several Palatinates or Districts, are o­blig'd but to appear for one. 3. The poorer [Page 4] sort of Gentry are eas'd in some measure, for several of them may joyn in the fitting out of one Horse, which is practised especially in Masovia. Also Brothers that are Joint-Te­nants may Depute one to appear for all. 4. The King's Court and Retinue▪are not obliged to Muster under the Palatins, and where the King does not go into the Field in Person, they are to be totally excus'd. 5. About 30 of the Gentry of the Queen's Court are ex­empt. 6. About 12 of the Archbishop of Gnesna's Court, and oftentimes some Officers of the Bishop of Cracow, and other Bishops Courts, especially where their Attendance is otherwise requir'd by the Republick. 7. All Ministers to Foreign Courts, together with their Domesticks, are absolutely to be dispen­sed with. 8. All Starosta's that are left in Gar­risons, and their Tribunes; And lastly, the great Constable or Governor of Cracow Castle, with his Deputy, the Burgraves, and two Captains of Foot are to be excus'd.

Several Provinces and Palatinates likewise, have peculiar Privileges relating to this gene­ral Meeting, for in the Palatinates of Masovia and Plockzko, six Brothers, altho' they have distinct Estates, send but one Horse-man. In Podlachia, out of ten Farms they send but one Light-Horse, and out of twenty but one Cui­rassier. The Palatinates of Kiovia and Brac­law, have likewise peculiar Privileges. In a general Expedition, the Gentry of Podolia were to continue in Garrison at Caminiec, while the Poles had that City in possession. The Prussians also need not march beyond the Ri­ver Vistula, Ossa, and Drebnicz. And lastly, [Page 5] Lithuanians are not to go beyond the bounds of their Great Dutchy.

The great numbers of the Pospo­life former­ly, and now. As to the great number assembled at this Pospolite, Basko, a Polish Writer says, that only in the Palatinate of Lenschet, in the time of Boleslaus Chrobry, 2000 Cuirassiers, and 4000 Light-Horse were raised at one time. Staro­volscius says, that Uladislaus had 100000 Horse against the Prussian Knights, over and above what he had left to defend the Provinces. I might observe several other prodigious Lu­strations out of the aforesaid Author, but for brevity sake I omit them; only I may affirm with Boterus, in his Description of Poland, that in case of necessity the Poles can raise up­wards of 100000 Horse, and the Lithuanians 70000: But Starovolscius is of Opinion, they can both raise above 200000 Horse without Expense. Also Fredro thinks, that the Poles can raise above 200000 Horse.

The number of Polish Foot is uncertain, they being at Liberty to appear, or to be excu­sed for Money. Starovolscius says, that in his time they did not amount to many hundreds, being discouraged by the rigour of their Sta­rosta's, and wholly confin'd to their rustick Drudgery, tho' (continues he) they are more able to sustain the hardships of War, then ei­ther the Germans or Hungarians, who can scarce live in the Polish Air. He also is of O­pinion, that the Polish Infantry, if encourag­ed, might amount to a considerable number, and be not a little serviceable. The Foreign hir'd Foot have sometimes exceeded 30000, when the Cosacks serv'd the Poles, but they [Page 6] fought also on Horseback, and King Stephen in his Expedition against the Suedes in Livonia, had above 16000 German and Hungarian Foot in his Pay.

The man­ner of their being Rais­ed and Mu­stered. Now I shall proceed to present your Grace with an account of the manner of raising and Mustering this vast Body of Men. When a Pospolite is once agreed by the General Diet to be summon'd, the King, after the Anci­ent manner, sends out his Writs, or Letters into all the Palatinates or Districts of his King­dom, which being received by the inferiour Officers, they are fastned by a small Cord to a long Pole (whence they are called Literae Re­stium by some, and by others VVici, signify­ing in Polish, a Staff) and carried alost to every one of the Chief Noblemen of the District thrice in a Month, and Proclaim'd as often in all Cities and Towns. All Courts of Justice cease at the third reading of these Letters, un­less it be those of the Vice- Starosta's, who exercise their Jurisdiction as before. After the last reading of these Letters, a Place is ap­pointed by several private Assemblies of the Nobility in every District, for particular Mu­sters, and afterwards for the General Muster of every Palatinate. Here the Palatins and Castellans take an exact Account of the Men, Horses, Arms, &c. neither of which can be chang'd after that Muster. At the same time also, the Palatin divides the Districts among the several Castellans, and orders them their several Posts. In those Palatinates where there is but one Castellan, there part of his Duty is performed by a Vice-Chamberlain, &c. and [Page 7] in Lithuania by a Marshal of every District. This particular Muster being over, the Castel­lan of every District leads the Gentry under▪ his Command to the place of general Muster for the Palatinate, where the Palatin Musters them again, and takes an account of the De­faulters. Before the Castellans come to the Palatins, Justice is absolutely in their Hands, but afterwards they must resign it to the Pala­tin, tho' Capital Crimes are always reserved for the determination of the General, or ra­ther of the King, who of late days has had a Council of War Assign'd him for that pur­pose.

I may here observe, that the Gentry are always Muster'd and Registr'd annually by their respective Officers. Starovolscius reasona­bly Things re­quired in vain of the Polish Ca­valry.requires two necessary Qualities in the Po­lish Horse, which they seldom or never have, and those are Expedition and Obedience. As to the former, he says, they are always unwilling to leave their Wives and Children, and there­fore never care for appearing, before they are forced by the third Summons: And as for the latter, when they are got together, he says, thinking themselves Powerful, they are al­ways Plotting, and ready to Rebel against their Superiours; and the reason is, that altho' the Kingdom of Poland abounds with all manner of Plenty, yet in every Expedition almost, the Soldiers are ready to starve, which is occasio­ned by a shameful neglect of the Chief Offi­cers to furnish the Army with requisite Pro­visions, whence it often comes to pass, that tho' matters are brought to the nearest issue, yet they are generally forsaken before they are [Page 8] accomplished, the Soldiers Heads running af­ter nothing but Forrage and Plunder, which they take wherever it comes in their way, whereby the Country is generally injur'd in­stead of being righted and defended. There are other Causes of this Confusion and Dis­order in the Army, which I shall speak of hereafter.

Meet at the General Rendezvous When the Gentry have been thus Muster'd by the Palatins, they are next to be led by their Officers to the Place of general Rendezvous, where every Palatin delivers up his Charge to the Supremacy of the Great General. In their March they are not to be quarter'd upon any of the King's or Gentrys Estates, but are to encamp in the open Fields, that they may make no disturbance in the Citys. At this day the Generals Power is very much limit­ed in respect of what it was formerly, for then a General was altogether Absolute, and his Will alone went for a Law, but now he can do little without the consent of such as the Republick has Assign'd him. Besides the Great Generals, and Field-Marshals, the King, by the Laws, is obliged to be in the Ar­my in Person. This appears by the example of King Alexander, who, by reason the Gen­try demanded his Presence among them, tho' Sick, was forced to be carried in a Litter into the Camp. This was thought to have been Plotted by the Contrivance of the Duke of Glinski, who hoped thereby that the King would catch his Death.

[Page 9] A Division of the Ar­my, and first of the Horse. Before I proceed any farther, I ought to give your GRACE a Division of the Polish Army, and therein observe, that it is compos­ed of different kinds of Soldiers, as first of the Pospolite, or Militia. 2. Of hir'd Soldiers. 3. Of Auxiliaries. 4. Of Quartarian Hirelings. And 5th of Voluntiers. And again, it con­sists both of Horse and Foot, and those Na­tives and Foreigners; the Natives are for the greatest part Horse, or Cavalry, and may be divided into four sorts, which may also be con­sidered in two manners, as first heavy-Arm'd, and secondly light-Horse. The former are, 1. The Hussartz, which, with their Horses, are both in close Armour. And 2 the Tovarzysz, which have only a Breast-Plate, Helmet, and Gorget. These are both choice Men, and the latter are so named from a word in Polish which signifies Companion.

Heavy Armed. The first of these are Armed with short Lances, Sabres, and Pistols, and the second, with Carabines, Bows, and Arrows, &c. These short Lances are called by the Poles, Kopye, whence also the Body of Men that uses them is term'd Kopiynick. These Kopiie are about 6 Foot long, and tied to the Horsmen's Wrists with strings of Silk. When they come near their Enemy, they dart their Lances with all their Force against them, and if they miss their Bodies, they suddenly snatch back the Lance, by help of the Silken string, but where they have mortally wounded any, then they slip the Silk, and leave the Lance in their Bo­dies, till such time as they can ride up to them to cut of their Heads with a broad well tem­per'd Sabre, which always hangs by their Sad­dles.

[Page 10] Both the Hussartz and Tovarzysz, with their Horses, look frightfully, being stuck all over with Wings of Storks, Cranes, Turky-Cocks, &c. and Cloath'd over their Armour with skins of Leopards, Tygres, Bears, Lyons, &c. all which they do to make themselves the more terrible to their Enemy. These Cavalry for the most part set themselves also off wilh va­rious Partycolour'd Mantles, which oftentimes shine with Jewels, Gold and Silver. Of the Hussartz there are but 5 Companies in Poland, every Company consisting of about 300 Men, all Arm'd Cap-a-pe. They have but one Lieutenant in each Company, which they call Poruczknik, and one Korazy, or Trumpeter, with a particular sort of Trum­pet, which they call Koronzy. One of these the present King of France caus'd to be brought into his Kingdom, with design to have the like made, but being extreamly costly, and not like to be of any great use among the Can­non, he laid his Intention aside.

Light Horse. The Light Horse are also of two sorts, and are either with Armour, or without. The first sort wear Coats of Mail, and differ in Names as they do in Countries. The Poles call them Pancerznicy Koragwy, and the Lithu­anians, Petihorsky Koragwy, which last differ something in their Dress from the former. The number of these far exceeds that either of the Hussartz, or Tovarzysz. They are both separate Companies, and are Incorporated in­to no Regiments. They are in all about 6 or 7000, and are Arm'd with Darts and Sabres, and, if they please, they may wear Wings and Feathers. Those out of Armour which [Page 11] are the fourth sort of Horse, wear a Burka, or rough Mantle about their Necks, and have for Arms a Bow and Arrows, with a Sabre. These are the most numerous of all, and com­pose the main Body of the Army, call d by the Poles, Woysko. The number of these is al­ways determin'd by the Diet. Neither these nor the others ever wear Liveries, as in most Countries, because they are all Polish Gentle­men. These, were they better Disciplin'd, and better paid, would, perhaps, be the finest Cavalry in the World.

A Division of the Foot. As for the Foot, they are either Poles and Lithuanians, or Foreigners, levy'd chiefly in Ger­many and Hungary. The Zaporohensian Cosacks for­merly serv'd the Poles as Volunteers, for very small Pay. They sometimes came in 30000 strong, Arm'd with hook'd Lances, Scymitars, and long Guns, and each having his Horse, they fought either Mounted or on Foot. They us'd their own Discipline, and chose all their Commanders out of their own Body, and would frequently depose even their Gene­ral without any reason if he were not success­ful.

I have observ'd some of the Manners of these Cosacks in the first Volume of this History, and here it may not be a-miss, by way of Di­gression, to say something more of them, e­specially in what relates to War, wherein I shall be as brief as I ought in reason.

A further account of the Co­sacks. They had their Name of Zaporohensian from the Russians, calling them Porohi, import­ing that they liv'd beyond the borders of the Kingdom of Poland. He that Governs them [Page 12] at present is their General, who, instead of a Scepter, bears only a Commander's Staff made of Cane. As this Person is not Elected by Votes, but by tumultuary Acclamations, and throwing up of Caps, so he is frequently de­posed after the same manner, by the incon­stant Suffrages of the Populace; but however, while he injoys his Supremacy, he has an Ar­bitrary Power over Life and Death. Next to him are the 4 Counsellors of War (called by them Assavuli) and the Lieutenant-Gene­ral: After these are the several Prefects, and other Sub-Commanders.

Proceed­ings in their Coun­sells of War In their Counsels of War, the General ha­ving caus'd all the People to be Conven'd, and standing under a Canopy bare headed, toge­ther with the Counsellors, and Lieutenant-General, after making a small Reverence to the Multitude, who are sitting all the while, proposes to them what is fit to be debated at that Session; then is also his time to clear any Accusations made against him, or to request any Favour of the Publick, which he always does with a great deal of Submission and Re­spect. While the General is speaking, the People all hearken with profound silence, but as soon as he has done, they pronounce their Pleasure with no less Noise and Vocifieration.

Way of for­tifying their Camps and Boats. By Land, like the Ancient Gauls, they for­tify their Camps with their Carriages, and at Sea they are wont to defend their little Boats against the Fury of Tempests, by fencing them all round, and over head, with Reeds radled together, not unlike our Arbors. Of these Cosacks, Amurath the Great, Emperor of Tur­key us'd to say, That in spite of the other Poten­tates [Page 13] of Europe, he could sleep on both Ears (a Turkish Expression) but that these Gad-flies would scarce suffer him to sleep on either.

Their Pow­er. We may guess at the Power of the Cosacks, by observing, that at one time they had above 200000 Men in the Field, in their Rebellion a­gainst Poland, but then indeed they had assist­ance from the Russians, who Rebell'd likewise. At present they have pretty good intelligence with the Poles, being very uneasy under the Turkish and Muscovitish Yoke, and they did the late King John Sobieski no small service in his Wars against the former.

What the Polish Foot are, and how employ­ed. To return to the Polish Foot, as I said before, they are either Natives or Foreigners. How the Natives are raised I shewed before. They are generally nothing but the vilest Mob, and their business is rather to serve as Pioneers than Soldiers, for the Gentry only make use of them to dig and fill up Trenches and Ditches, to undermine Walls, build Bridges, clear the Roads, to load and drive the Carriages, to keep Guard in the Camp, while the other Sol­diers are absent, and, in a word, to do all manner of drudgery they shall be command­ed to.

Hired Foot, and their Condition. These are mixt for the most part with the German hir'd Foot, who do not meet with much better treatment in the Army. VVhen we design to Besiege any Place, (says Starovolsci­us) we commonly send into Germany or Hun­gary to hire Foot, they being more Expert and Expeditious at any such work than ours. Among these, the word of Command is generally gi­ven in the German Tongue. They are all di­vided [Page 14] into Regiments and Companies as in other Countries, and Commanded as well by Polish as German Officers. The Soldiers are generally so ill provided for, that most of them have neither Swords nor Shooes, and when they are in Winter-Quarters, they have not above a Penny a day allowed them, be­sides what they can steal. Neither are their Officers much more kindly dealt with, for they scarce fare so well in any respect, as our common Sentinels do here.

Why so much used, and their Arms and Liveries. Altho' there is a set number of Polish Foot that are Natives, allowed out of every Vil­lage and Town, and which consequently is part of the Pospolite; yet because these Gene­ral Expeditions are very slow in getting toge­ther, and so instead of relieveing their Coun­try, rather oppress and expose it to Danger, the Poles have always almost, made use of Fo­reign Soldiers upon sudden Occasions, which would the easier be made subject to Discipline, and fit to undergo any Hazard or Exploit. The Arms of all these Foot are chiefly a long hook'd Battle-Ax, and which the Poles call in their Language, Bardysz, but sometimes they have a sort of long Guns. When the Cosacks and Heydukes serve the Poles, the latter have Liveries given them of one Colour, and the former have a sort of course Cloth of what Colour they please. They both have Horses to use upon occasion. What other Foreign Horse or Foot there are, I shall give your Grace an Account of in their proper places, but at present, for Method's sake, I must go back to the Pospolite.

[Page 15] Gentry how far obliged to March; with other particulars. The Gentry are not obliged to go beyond the Frontiers above five Miles, nor to continue above six Weeks in the Field, and if they are compell'd by a unanimous Agreement of the Diet, (which never happens but upon ve­ry extraordinary Occasions) then either the King or State is to bear their Charges, and make good their Damages. When the Gen­try take any Prisoners they are to present them to the King, and he is to make them some return by Custom, but when they are taken themselves they are to be ransom'd out of the Publick Treasury. For Foreign Expe­ditions the Poles make use of Stipendiary Sol­diers, provided the Enemy be not extraordi­nary strong; for in such case, the Nobility, by a decree of the Diet, is to march against them: So the Turk once coming towards Po­land with 600000 Men, the King did not care to trust even to 70000 hir'd Foreigners, but convok'd the Gentry together at Leopol, with whom, if he had set forward as speedily as he was advised, he might have totally extirpated the Infidels, for ought I know, out of Eu­rope. The Gentry are oblig'd to be in Arms as long as the King or State has occasion for them. They all serve on Horseback, not only for Honours sake, but likewise, that they may the more speedily intercept and oppose the E­nemy before they reach their Frontiers. When the Wars are over, the Nobility are not ipso fa­cto Discharged, but must wait till they are me­thodically dismiss'd the Roll or Register by the Palatins, the reason of which is, for fear they might otherwise misuse the Citizens and Boors in a tumultuous Return.

[Page 16] Hungari­an Foot when first hired. Of the hir'd Soldiers I have spoken some­thing before: All that I think proper to add is, that the Hungarian Foot which the Poles call VVegerska Piechota, were first instituted by Stephen Batori, in his Wars against the Musco­vites, to the maintaining of which, almost e­very Diet contributes something, yet which seldom or never suffices them. Formerly the hir'd Foot consisted as well of Natives as Stran­gers.

Auxilia­ries, what? The Auxiliary differ from the hir'd Forces, in regard that the former are such as have been agreed to be furnished the Poles by Foreign Princes in a Treaty of Peace; and the latter are such as have been levied in other Coun­tries by permission.

Example. Of this first sort were a certain number al­lowed Boleslaus Crivoustus by the Russians, and to Casimir IV. by the Tartars against the Prus­sias, which were to have some Rewards from the Poles: These Rewards the Tartars after­wards requir'd yearly as a Tribute, nay, tho' they did no manner of Service for them; whereupon King Stephen repell'd their Impor­tunacies with an absolute Refusal, as I have observ'd before in that King's Life, which oc­casion'd great heats and disturbances, but at length a Peace was concluded between these two Nations, under the Reign of John Casi­mir, whereby the Poles were oblig'd to pay a certain Stipend to the Cham; and on the o­ther hand, the Cham was to be assisting to the Poles whenever they had occasion, but it is certain that the latter broke his promise, which induced a non-performance in the former. There are other Examples of these kinds of [Page 17] Soldiers, and at present some Allies are still obliged by such Contracts. These Soldiers are both Horse and Foot, as the Agreement is made.

Quarta­rians what, and whence so called▪ This breach of Alliance by the Tartars, occasion'd the Poles a new sort of Soldiers; for Sigismundus Augustus, to prevent their In­cursions into his Kingdom, allotted a fourth part of his Crown-Revenues, to maintain a Guard on the Frontiers towards Tartary. This fourth part was sometimes augmented, and that as often as Exigencys required. It was to be supervised by two Senators, and two of the Gentry, in conjunction with the High-Trea­surer of Poland. The Starosta of Rava had the Custody of it, and was to give in his year­ly Accounts how he had distributed it. From hence these Soldiers had the Name of Quarta­rians. Before this time the like Institution had been attempted at a Diet held at Vilna, to guard the Frontiers of Lithuania against the Muscovites, but this met with Opposition, and consequently was laid aside: These Forces gene­rally consist of Foot, and are always kept in Garrison.

Volun­teers what in Poland. Besides all these Soldiers before-mentioned, some of the richest Gentry in Poland have all along been accustom'd, at their sole costs and charges, to raise several Troops of Horse for the publick Service; some few Examples of the Power of which it may not be amiss to insert. Examples.By the help of these, Zamoski, in the Reign of Sigismund III. worsted Carambeius the Scythian, with 3000 Men only, who with 70000 came to Invade Poland, but with the loss of [Page 18] many thousands of his Tartars, was quickly forced to return home: And in the same Reign, Zolkievi, with only 3000 Horse, set upon 80000 Muscovites unawares, and routed them entirely, bringing away three German Regi­ments that served among them. Also in the late Reign, Andrew Trzebicki (who afterwards was made Primate) when but Bishop of Cra­cow, and Duke of Severia, rais'd a conside­rable number of Forces at his own proper Ex­pence, to be sent against the Turks, and which performed Wonders under the then General John Sobieski. I omit many others that have done the same thing.

Selected out of the Gen­try. These Soldiers have been for the most part selected out of the Nobility, which has been the occasion of their so frequent success in but small numbers, in respect to those of their Enemies. From this voluntary raising of these Soldiers, they have had the Name given them of Volunteers, tho' in other Countries, that Title is appropriated to such as serve of their own Accord, and without Pay.

Causes that weaken the Polish Force. Notwithstanding the great number and Warlike Disposition of all these several kinds of Soldiers, yet their Power is very much a­bated by their want of Discipline, and the neglect of the State, and their Officers, in the due administration of Affairs; for first, as to the State, the Diet consisting of so many Per­sons of differing Sentiments, is so exceeding tardy in fitting matters for Action, that like a Clock made up of many contrary Motions, its Progress must consequently be very slow; and likewise, before the Senators and Gentry [Page 19] can meet together, there are so many Cere­monies to be past, (which they scarce ever abridge in the greatest Extremities) that a Po­tent Enemy may over-run the Kingdom, be­fore the Pospolite can well be got ready to op­pose them. This was experienced when the Czar of Muscovy took Polocz and Smolensko from Sigismundus Augustus, who by reason of the disagreements at that time in the Diet, was never afterwards able to revenge it. The same Czar likewise invaded Livonia without op­position, thro' the like Defect, which he could never have effected with so good success, had the Poles been in a readiness to have marched against him; but they are generally so long in fitting out, and so unwilling to part with their beloved Luxury at the Diet, that they can­not easily change to the rougher exercise of War.

Four things required to defend a State. Boterus, in his Description of Poland, says, that four things are indispensibly requisite to the Defence of a State; and they are, 1. Na­tive Force. 2. Numerous. 3. Potent. And 4. Expeditious. First, their Force ought to be Native, that they may not be betray'd by trusting it in the Hands of Strangers, who have not so great Interest in the Success as themselves. Secondly, Numerous, that they may always be able to bring on fresh Supplies in cases of Extremity. Thirdly, Potent, be­cause Numbers without Courage would rather contribute towards their Defeat than Victory: And fourthly, Expeditious and Active, that they may be qualified for hasty Marches, and to rally upon the greatest Rout. Now, tho' the Poles have a sort of Claim to the three [Page 20] former of these Qualities, yet they are a lit­tle wanting in the latter, especially before they come into the Field, the causes of which may be the want of sufficient Authority in the Prince, or the slow and defective Supplies of Money, which has always been justly esteem'd the Sinews of War. The insufficiency of the Princes Power may appear all along in the reading of this History; and the defect in supplies of Money is apparent, by the bad Paying and Providing for the Army, for the Soldiers that are to receive Pay, are never paid above once in half a Year, and oftentimes not at all, but are forced to subsist upon Plun­der, or upon what they can find in the Woods; nay, Hauteville says, they have sometimes been reduced to eat Horse-flesh. As for the Officers, they receive no Pay above once a Year, and sometimes but once in two.

Manner of paying the Army. The manner of Paying them is particular, and therefore it may not be improper to pre­sent your GRACE with an account of it. Commissioners deputed by the Diet for this purpose are ordered to meet at a place that is a good way off from Court, to the end the King may not concern himself in it, tho' every thing there be done in his Name. Then they proceed to allot every Officer his quota, but they commonly retrench part of their due, espe­cially where they are Foreigners, and which may the better be tolerated, because the Officers are generally at no charge to subsist and recruit their Companies, and yet their Commission runs, as if they had taken care of them, so that however the Soldiers suffer, the Officers have no reason to complain.

[Page 21] The Ro­kosz, and its manner of proceed­ing. By the Armies being so seldom paid, and sometimes not at all for want of Money, the Soldiers frequently Confederate together and Mutiny, the manner whereof is commonly this. The Officers after they have found that their repeated complaints both to Court and the Diet, prove fruitless, are wont to As­semble and make a Rokosz, which in the Po­lish Language implys, a forsaking their Gene­rals. The Subaltern Officers being thus Assem­bled, Elect two among them, one for their Marshal, and another for their Lieutenant, which last they term their Substitute; both these they immediately make to Swear, That they will use their utmost endeavours to procure their Pay from the Republick. After this, the said Marshal forthwith takes upon him the Office of General; the sequel of which may be easily conjectur'd to be nothing but Ruin and Desolation; for then the Army instead of Marching against the Enemy or securing the Frontiers, minds nothing else but Plunder, Rapine and Destruction.

Example. An Example of this kind happen'd under the Reign of John Casimir, when one Swi­derski was Marshal, and one Borzecki, his Lieutenant or Substitute. This Confederacy which was not easily quell'd by the King, was thought to have been occasion'd more by the influence of some Male-contents, who hop'd to effect their Designs in such a Confusion, than for any great omission in paying the Army. Other in­convenien­cies which suppress the Pole's Power.

There are other inconveniencies which in­troduce Confusion and Disorder into the Po­lish Army, and consequently Oppression of [Page 22] the people; and these flow chiefly from the Officers, and first from the General's being perpetual, the King being often oblig'd to give that great Charge to a rich Noble­man, that knows little or nothing of War­like matters, yet when he has once bestow'd it, he cannot recall his Grant, tho' he fore­see never so many ill Consequences that at­tend it; so that it is no wonder if Poland often makes false steps in Martial Affairs, when it has frequently so unexperienc'd a Guide. On the contrary, if this high Com­mand were only conferr'd on, and conti­nu'd to Merit, what wonders might not the Polish Cavalry be able to perform? for be­ing so vast a number of Horse, they might easily hem in and Cut off the greatest Bo­dy of Foot, of which the Armies of their Enemies chiefly Consist. Another inconve­nience proceeds from the ill Conduct and Remissness of the under Officers, the grea­test whereof is that, especially those of the Gentry, seldom come to the place of Ren­dezvouz, till a Month or six Weeks after the time appointed, and this neither the King nor General dares offer to remedy, for fear of disobliging that serviceable Body. In like manner the Gentry are sometimes accu­stom'd to leave the Army a Month before the Campaign is ended, which grievance is also not to be redress'd without danger. The cause of their being so tardy in appearing, is in a great measure to be Attributed to the defective Orders given them; for when the Officers are Commanded to March to such or such a place in the Kingdom, nei­ther [Page 23] the time they are to march in, nor the Towns they are to pass through, are com­prehended, so that by these means they are at liberty, to delay on account of their own private Business, as much as they please, or else, to wander all over the Kingdom, either for their Profit or Pleasure; whereby the Country they March through is not a little damag'd, and the best laid Designs of the Army frustrated by their Absence. Another Inconvenience arising from the Officers, is, That they employ so much Money in fitting themselves out with costly Arms, and splen­did Equipage▪ that for want of timely Pay, they have seldom any thing left, in a little time, to support their Necessities: Which De­fect they are wont to make up, by oppressing the People after an unreasonable manner. From this Extravagance of theirs, proceeds another Inconvenience to the State; For, af­ter they have thus exhausted their Pockets, they usually lay the Occasion of their Mis­behaviour either on the Court, or the Go­vernment, which, in the succeeding Diet, of­tentimes produces great Heats and Distur­bances. When any new Levies are to be made in Poland, the Officers not only excuse, for Money, what Places they think sit; but also, as I observ'd before, seldom pay the Sol­diers the Rates that they are allow'd for them; so that these latter are, in a manner, forc'd to pillage and plunder even their own Coun­try, without their Officers being able to hin­der them, by reason that they have first set them Examples for so doing.

[Page 24] Means pro­pos'd to a­void these Inconveni­ences, but ever-ru [...]'d: To avoid most of these Inconveniences, some discerning Politicians have propos'd to the Diet, to keep the Soldiers always Encam­ped, to the end that they might be made more subject to Discipline, by disabling them from pillaging the Country; and by keep­ing them together, they might be always at hand to oppose the sudden Inroads of an Ene­my. By these Means also, the People, being deliver'd from Oppression, would be the bet­ter able to pay their Taxes; which would re­move that fatal Inconvenience, of the Army's being ill paid. This Advice some approv'd of, and argu'd for: But others vigorously op­pos'd it; alledging, that it might be of very ill Consequence to intrust so great a Power in the Hands of one Person, their General; and to confide it to more than one, would, pro­bably, through Emulation, occasion no less Disorder and Danger to the Commonwealth. After a great many Debates, Pro and Con, these last got the better, and prevail'd to have the Army continue in the same Disorder as be­fore.

[...]reat Force of Cavalry notwith­standing; with Ex­amples. Notwithstanding all these Inconveniences that the Polish Government lies under as to Military Affairs, yet, in time of Action, their Cavalry especially, have effected Wonders; a few Examples of which it may not be impro­per to entertain Your GRACE with, out of Starovolscius. He begins with the Reign of Sigismund I. and says, That the General Les­niovius, with not above 1500 Spear-men, routed above 40000 Moscovites, killing up­wards of 9000 on the Spot. In like manner, [Page 25] another General, Boratinius, with 2000 Horse, defeated 30000 Moscovites, killing 7000 of them, and bringing away all their Cannon. In the same Reign likewise, Camenecius, with only 6000 Horse, overthrew above 25000 Tartars. And about the same time, Tarno­vius, with 4000, beat 22000 Turks and Va­lachians, taking from them above 52 Field-Pieces. In Sigismund II's Reign, Duke Rad­zivil, with 7000 only, routed 30000 Mosco­vites, and took from them the Castle of Ula: And Prince Sapieba, with 5000, both defen­ded the Fortress of Venda, and defeated the Besiegers, which were upwards of 24000 Moscovites and Livonians. Under King Ste­phen, General Zborowski, with scarce 2000 Horse, discomfited the whole Army of Dant­zic-Rebels, made up out of several Nations, and left above 8000 dead upon the Spot. Also, in Sigismund III's Time, General Za­moski, with scarce 6000 Horse, beat the Arch-Duke Maximilian, who had with him about 18000 Men: He likewise repuls'd the Tar­tars with only 3000 Men, who were coming to invade Poland with 70000. About the same time also, Chodkievicz, with no more than 3000, routed the Suedes in Livonia, kil­ling 9000, and taking 4000 Prisoners. Sta­rovolscius has some few other Instances of the Polish Valour; but whether what I have al­ready mention'd will be credited by your GRACE, and the Publick, I am not able to determine: However, I may affirm, that this Author hath never hitherto been esteem'd for Fabulous.

[Page 26] Two Quali­ties neces­sary in War. What I have remaining to say, as to the Poles Force, is, That however great it has hi­therto been, yet is it rather to be attributed to their good Fortune, than Conduct; for two principal Qualities to make a Warlike En­terprise especially, successful, have ever been Strangers to them: These are, The Power to keep a Secret; and an exact Intelligence of their Enemy's Advances, and Condition. As to a Secret, which is the Soul of all great Proceedings; that is so little observ'd in Po­land, that scarce the meanest Officer in the Army, but knows what the General intends to do almost as soon as himself: And, for In­telligence of the Posture and Capacity of the Enemy, by reason they make use of no Spies, they never know any thing of the matter till they happen to meet a Party, and take them Prisoners; from whom they are accustom'd to extort Confessions in Cases of Obstinacy.

Soldiers Pay; from what it a­rises, and how raised. As to the Pay of the Polish Army, I have shew'd before how it is executed; now I must give some short Account, from what it arises, and the manner of Raising it. It ari­ses either from Occasional Impositions, or Perpetual Customs, and Yearly Taxes: Of the former Kind, are, a General Poll, or Ca­pitation; and Voluntary Gifts of the Clergy, for they cannot be Tax'd by the State. Of the latter Sort, are, All fix'd Duties upon the Jews, Tartars, Land, Merchandize, Art, &c. From Yearly Taxes, all Scholars, and such as busie themselves in Study, are excepted. The Fourth Part of the King's Revenue, set apart for maintaining a Guard on the Frontiers, [Page 27] may likewise be rank'd under this Denomi­nation of Fix'd Duties. The manner of Rai­sing these Taxes and Duties, is, for the most part, left to the King's Discretion, tho' some­times the Diet assumes that Authority, as like­wise to supervise the Distribution of the Mo­ney rais'd. It may be observ'd, that a Col­lector's Office is to last no longer than the Im­position he is to collect.

Provisions and Am­munition, what. As to Provisions, there are no Sutlers in the Polish▪ Army, for two Reasons; First▪ Because they would never be paid for what they sold; and then, tho' they durst venture, yet they would run no ordinary risque to be plunder'd before they reach'd the Camp; and this espe­cially by the Lithuanians, who are generally more given that way than the Poles. There are likewise no Magazins, as in other Coun­tries; so that the Officers especially are oblig'd to have great Equipages, and many Carriages, to convey their Necessaries along with them, where-ever they march: Among these, their Tents are extraordinary fine, tho' very heavy. Also, neither the King, nor Republick of Po­land, has any publick Armories, or Arsenals; tho' it be true that Uladislaus Jagello instituted some few Repositories for Great Cannon, yet, which are now of no great Consequence; and those, which are in far greater Numbers, and much more useful, are chiefly in the Hands of the Gentry, or in the great Cities; whence, as often as the King has Occasion, he either takes them at Pleasure, or at Suf­ferance.

[Page 28] Gun-Foun­ders, Fo­reign. Poland likewise being not wanting in Metal, several new Cannon are founded, whenever the Old become unserviceable; the which, for the most part, is perform'd by the Ger­mans, the Poles not being so skilful in that Art. The Arms the Polanders generally use, I have spoken of before; yet it may not be impro­per to add what Hartknoch says of the Antient Polish Historians; which is, That they affirm, that formerly the Poles made use of a very hea­vy sort of Arms; insomuch that when Bole­slaus II. in his Expedition against the Prussians, waded with his Army through the River Ossa, many of his Soldiers were drown'd meerly by the Weight of their Arms.

For Fortifi­cations. For Castles, Poland has a great Number, scarce any considerable City or Town being without one; yet which are now of little or no Use, except some few which are still kept up, the rest being suffer'd to decay by the Nobles that have got Possession of them. The Cause of the first Fortifications in Poland was on Ac­count of the frequent Incursions of its Neigh­bours; tho' Now (says Starovolscius, speak­ing of himself, and his Country▪men) being not desirous of invading others, we find that we are sufficiently capable to defend our selves with our Bodies; tho, were we otherwise inclin'd, we might raise as strong Fortifications as any in Europe; yet, which we look upon to be not so consistent with true Courage and Valour.

Pretended Advanta­ges thereby. It is certain, that Unfortify'd Countries lie most expos'd to sudden Irruptions, as this Kingdom of Poland has often experienc'd: But then this Mischief continues but a little [Page 29] while; for, as soon as the Nobility can be got together, the Invaders are generally for­ced to retire; as may appear by several Exam­ples in our Modern Histories alone. These Maxims of the Poles, to have few or no Forti­fy'd Places, are founded upon several potent Reasons; for they thereby promote the Per­sonal Valour of their own Men, and weaken that of their Enemies, by not leaving either a Place of Retreat. If we reflect on those States that have a great many Fortifications, we shall find, that with the Loss of but one Bat­tel, they have been in a manner ruin'd; for the Enemies being once got into their Strong-Holds, are not easily forc'd out of them: When, on the contrary, the Poles always rally in a Field-Battle; and having no Places to retire to, either for themselves, or their Enemies, never give out till they have totally excluded their Invaders. Besides, the Poles look upon Garrisons to be the Promoters of Effeminacy and Softness, by the Examples of several He­roes of Antiquity; for the Courages of Ale­xander and Hannibal were altogether enervated by their Revels at Persepolis and Capua; and Boleslaus, bury'd, as it were, in his Debauches at Kiovia.

Generals; their Power and Dura­tion. Next, I must proceed to present Your GRACE with an Account of the General Officers of the Army: And first, Of the Ge­nerals, whereof there are two; one for the Kingdom, and another for the Great Dutchy, as I have observ'd before. He that is for the Kingdom, is stil'd Hetman Wielki Koronni; and he for the Dutchy, Hetman Wielki W. X. [Page 30] Litheuskiego. These, as I have said before, have almost the same Power with the King, whilst they continue in the Field, over their respective Armies; for their Authority is al­together independent on each other. This Dignity does not intitle them to sit in the Senate; yet, for the most part, they are cho­sen out of the Senatorian Order, and that to procure them the greater Respect; and some­times they have, at the same time, been the highest Officers in the Kingdom; as, Great Marshal, Great Chancellor, &c. for John Za­moski was both Great Chancellor and General at once. Yet this was afterwards abrogated; and now the Office of General, or Lieutenant- General, is usually conferr'd either upon the Palatins, or Castellans; who, altho' they be in a manner superiour to the Great Offi­cers of the Kingdom, in respect of their Sitting in the Diet, when the others are to stand about the King; yet they are not pre­sum'd to have so great a Power in the Re­publick. This Office was, not long since, per­petual; but now, by the Constitutions in the Year 1666. it is to expire at the End of three Years.

Lieutenant Generals, their Power Each of these Generals has his Lieutenant- General. The Office of these is describ'd in the Letter to his GRACE the Duke of NORFOLK, and therefore need not be repeated here. The Title the Poles give the former is Hetman Polny Koronni; and to the latter, Hetman Polny W. X. Litheuskiego. In the absence of the Generals they have almost the same Power with them, and formerly had equal, tho' the Generals were present, but that [Page 31] was afterwards abrogated. They are chosen out of the Senatorian Order, in like manner as the Generals.

Other Gene­rals Officers▪ Besides these, there are the Generals of the Frontier-Guards, which are independent on all but the King and Diet: Likewise the Ge­neral of the Cosacks, whose power is establish­ed by the Constitution in the Year 1661. Next may be reckon'd the Chief Commander of the King's Guards in the Camp, whose Office has been describ'd already in the Letter be­fore-mention'd. Next to these General-Of­ficers come the Great Masters of the Artille­ry, whereof there are two, one for the King­dom, and another for the Great Dutchy; Their Office is to take charge of, and to pro­vide the Armies with all sorts of Cannon, &c. and to see the Soldiers want for no Ammu­nition. After these may be rank'd the Pis­sarsz of the Army, that is to say, the Inten­dant, the Great Ensign, the Camp-Marshal, the Captain of the Guard, or Watch; and lastly, the Major- Generals, which are much the same with our Brigadiers.

Other Offi­cers of the Army. Then come the Colonels, Captains, &c. There are two other sorts of Officers belong­ing to the Army, which are the Camp-Nota­ries, and the Roto-Magistri. The former are to take an exact account of the number of Soldiers in the Army every three Months, and to transmit a Copy thereof to the Great Treasurer, and another to the Nuncio-Marshal; but in Lithuania this is to be done every Month, and the Nuncio-Marshal's Copy is to be given to the General. The Roto-Magistri are, as it were, Captains, or Centurious of the Fron­tier-Guards, [Page 32] and who cannot by the Consti­tutions, enjoy such a Commission, and be Se­nators at the same time.

Some few particulars of the Poles Jus Belli. As to the Laws relating to Arms, Your GRACE may first be pleased to understand, that tho' the King cannot properly be said to declare War without the unanimous consent of the Diet, yet in cases of sudden Incursions▪ he might formerly with the Approbation only of such of the Senators as were then about him; And under Sigismund III. there was a Council of War assign'd by the Diet, or elected by the little Diets, amounting to a considerable num­ber, to attend and advise in those matters, which Council continues even at this day; however, with this restraint, That what they do is not altogether valid, till it has been confirm'd by the General Diet; but, as to of­fensive War, that belongs peculiarly to the Great Diet to declare. The King in like man­ner cannot either give to, or receive Assist­ance from any Foreign Prince, without the consent of the General Diet; neither can he place any Foreigner in the custody of Castles or Forts, without their Approbation. The Poles have many other Laws concerning Mar­tial Discipline, which I have not Room here to Insert, only I may take notice to Your GRACE, that Deserters are punish'd not only with the loss of their Reputation, but also whatever else they have in the World is Consiscated to the sole use and benefit of the Army. By the Laws also, no Women are suffer'd to follow the Camp, tho' too great a number of Servants and useless Rabble are al­low'd [Page 33] of, insomuch, that in an Army of but 10000 Men, there will at least be 50000 of that Gang.

Thus, my Lord, I have presum'd to pre­sent your GRACE with what particulars I could find, as well in the best Polish Histori­ans▪ as in some private Memoirs, relating to the Military Affairs in Poland, and which, I hope, tho' not capable to afford what satis­faction might be expected, may, at least, give no occasion of Offence.

LETTER VII.
To his Excellency Monsieur de CLEVERSKERK, Ambassa­dor in Ordinary to his Majesty WILLIAM III. from the States of Holland.

TRADE has ever been justly esteem'd so necessary towards the Support and Grandeur of any State, that no Nation in the World has hitherto been found so Stupid, as to be without it. Some Countries indeed, have wholly confin'd it to the limits of their own Dominions, but how much they have been in the wrong, may appear from the vast advantages which Foreign Commerce has brought to other Nations. England and Hol­land are sufficient Demonstrations of this As­sertion, who, during the late War, have been thereby able to contribute so largely towards the opposing a Potent Monarch, who other­wise might have been so far from affording [Page 35] such wonderful Concessions, as we have ob­tain'd by the late happy Peace, that he might rather, in all Probability, have over-run the greatest part of Europe.

Poles not much en­clined to Trade, and why. As for the Trade of Poland, my Lord, the Poles are but little addicted to industry of that kind, the Gentry being absolutely forbid it on the forfeiture of their Honour, and the Commonalty for the most part wanting Funds sufficient to promote it; therefore, what Trade they have is chiefly follow'd by Foreign Merchants. Besides, those of the Poles, who have the best Fortunes, generally spend too much of their Revenues in costly Habits and Luxury to be able to undergo any considera­ble matters in Traffick. Also this Kingdom of Poland is not in the least commodious for such an undertaking, it not having any con­siderable Port, that of Dantzic only excepted, which would suffice for the exotick Trade of so vast a Country. Hence it follows, that what Commodities are transported into Foreign Countries are so very inconside­rable, that tho' they are of several sorts, and of general use, yet being counterpois'd by the incredible quantity, and richer variety of foreign Merchandize, they scarce suffice for Balance to the Cloth, Silk, Jewels, Tapestry, Fruit, Spice, Salt-Fish, Wine, Tin, Steel, &c. Imported from England, Flanders, Portugal, Spain, &c.

Commidi­ties Expor­ted and Im­ported. Starovolscius enumerates the divers particu­lars Exported and Imported, wherein it may not be improper to follow him. He says, that over and above those already mentioned, [Page 36] there are likewise rich Furrs, Gold and Sil­ver, both wrought and unwrought, and great variety of Kickshaws and Delicacies Import­ed, and as for what are Exported, they are Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rie, Millet, and all sorts of Grain and Pulse, Wooll, Hemp, Flax, Hops, a sort of Herb for Dying, Hides, Tallow, Tann'd Leather, Furrs brought out of Musao­vy, but drest here, and transported from hence. Likewise Polish Furrs, Honey, Wax, Amber, Pitch, Pot-ashes, Masts, Planks, and several Materials both for Shipwrights and other Builders. Poland also exports, Salt, Beer, Opium, Vitriol, Nitre, Lapis Lazuli, Vermil­lion, Brass, Lead, Iron, Copper, Pit-Coal, Glass, and Earthen Ware. Moreover it sup­plies the Neighbouring Countries with Horses very much coveted for their swiftness, hardi­ness, and easy pace. It also furnishes other Nations with vast numbers of Oxen, Sheep, Hogs, &c. with which it greatly abounds.

But little Money, and why. Notwithstanding all these Exportations, yet as I said before, the Trade of Poland is over­balanc'd by Foreign Commodities, whence it comes to pass, that there is but little Money to be met with in that Kingdom. What small matters the Merchants receive for their Goods at Dantzic, they generally give to the Hungarians, &c. for Wine; nevertheless, they have some Foreign Coin, and some of their own stirring amongst them.

Coin most current in Poland. That which is most current in the King­dom, is either all of Copper, or Copper mixt with Silver, tho' they have likewise some few Silver and Gold Coins of their own. The [Page 37] two first of these sorts are the most common, and which are always Coined in such small pieces, that it is very troublesome either re­ceiving or paying out any Sum. Of the first kind are their Chelons, being of Copper Sil­ver'd over, whereof three make a Polish Gross, (the Grosses of Dantzic being of greater value) and three Grosses, the value of Two Pence of their Money: Tho' Hauteville says, these nine Chelons are not worth above a French Sous.

Contributes to Poverty. This base Polish Coin contributes very much towards the Poverty of this Kingdom. It was introduc'd on Account of Necessity, when the Poles had no Money to pay their Army, which began to Confederate, and join in a Rokosz, for want of it. It is not likewise of late Days that this Coin has been introduced, for the Officers of Casimir III. are said to have coin'd it; and which was af­terwards grievously exclaim'd against at the Diet held at Petrikow, in the Year 1459, un­der the Reign of Casimir the Great. In those Days, it seems, the Kings had a Power to coin Money; and the first that resign'd his Right to the Republick, was Sigismond III. in the Year 1632.

Other Coins. The next of their Coins are called Chou­stacks, being small pieces of Silver of base alloy, whereof three make a Tinfe, which is also a sort of Silver Money of base Alloy. This was first Coin'd to satisfie the Mutinous Army in the Year 1663, of the value of about 15 d. These Coins are not the same in Prussia and Dantzic, as shall be shew'd hereafter. The Polish Silver Coins of good Alloy, are the Attine, or four [Page 38] pence halfpenny, and the Trigross, and Segross, the former of which two last is three, and the latter six times the value of a Gross: Yet of these three there are at this day but very few remaining. As for Gold Coins, Casimir the Great was the first that caus'd any to be stamp'd in Poland, but of which, either Coin'd by that King or his Successors, there are few now made use of, the Silver and Gold Coins that have any Currency in the Kingdom, being for the most part Foreign. Those of Gold are Ducats, which are worth two French Crowns, or two German Rixdollars. Those of Silver are generally of the German Coin.

Poles not very rich, and why. Tho' it may hereby appear, that the Polish Wealth is not over considerable, yet says Sta­rovolscius, it has always been sufficient to de­fray the Expences of the Kingdom, without the help of any Neighbours, tho' the same Author afterwards gives this Character of his Countrymen; that they are not over rich by reason of their sending the greatest part of their Commodities abroad, and generally re­ceiving nothing in return, but such as serve to support Luxury, and encourage Vice. Hauteville gives another reason why the Poles may not be so rich as formerly, which is, because of the many and frequent Incursions of the Muscovites, Turks, Cosacks, and Tartars into this Kingdom, who were accustomed to carry off great num­bers into slavery, and thereby to dis-people the Country; also by reason of the many bloody Wars, and sweeping Pestilencies which this Country has undergone.

[Page 39] Particu­lars of Trade. Having already spoken of the Trade of Po­land in general, it may not be here amiss to entertain your Excellency with some particu­lars relating thereunto. And first I shall ob­serve something of Salt, which was omitted in the first Volume of this Undertaking.

Concerning Salt. The Spaces, or Allies, which I there took notice of are form'd by rows of large Pillars cut out of the Salt to keep the Earth from fal­ing in, and which, by reflection of the Light make a very agreeable Prospect, seem­ing so many Rows of sparkling Chrystal. The Salt is taken out of these Mines in huge Mas­ses, and laid in heaps all about the entrance, whence it is transported in Carriages through­out the whole Kingdom, except Prussia only, where French Salt is alone made use of. This Salt is ground in Mills like Corn. The Gen­try of this Kingdom have a right to any of these Mines, as likewise to those of any Me­tals found upon their Lands; there being by the Constitutions no Royal Mines in Poland, except those of white Salt only, which belong peculiarly to the King.

No Fulling or Paper-Mills. Throughout all Poland and Lithuania there are a great many Corn and Cachat-Mills, but scarce any for Fulling, or Paper, yet which they might very well have, by reason of their great number of rapid Streams. In this, and in other respects, the Poles are very negligent of their own Interest, being content to pay great rates for Cloth and Paper, when they might easily have both of their own Manufacture.

[Page 40] Concerning Leather and Fish. As for Leather, tho' no People use it more, (having almost all Boots and Chariots, which they call Ridevans) yet do they not care to take the trouble of dressing it themselves, but suffer Foreigners to do it for them, and which commonly they pay very dear for when done. The Poles Trade very much in fresh Fish amongst themselves, and the manner of their Fishing, I imagine, may not be unacceptable to your Excellency, having something peculiar in it.

Manner of Fishing. Their Lakes and Fish-ponds in Poland and Lithuania being generally so large, that it would be almost impossible ever to drain them, They usually choose to Fish them in Winter when they are all frozen up. They first make a great hole in the Ice to let down their Nets, and afterwards several little ones from place to place, that they may draw them along from hole to hole with a Rope fast­ned to a long Pole, till they bring them back to the first large opening; When the two ends of the Nets are brought together, they pull them up, and bring out with them all the Fish that happen to be within the space of Water thro' which the Nets were drawn, for they cannot possibly leap over them, because of the Ice.

Honey, and its Produce. Throughout all Poland and Lithuania, there are huge quantities of Honey to be found in the Woods, either in hollow Trees, holes of the Ground, or any where else that the Bees can find to settle in. Of this Honey, as I said before, the People make several sorts of Mead, with which, and the Wax that comes from it, they Trade very much into the [Page 41] Neighbouring Countries. Now is it not a great wonder, that these Bees can produce so great plenty of Honey in so Cold a Climate? But it seems they find something in the Fir-Trees, whereof there are great num­bers in every Wood, that supplies the place of Flowers, which they suck their materials from in other Countries.

Former Trade of Prussia. Before I proceed to give your Excellency a description of the Famous City of Dantzic, I must take some cursory Notice of the for­mer Trade of Prussia, before its Inhabitants came to have the use of Money. In the XIIIth Century, the Teutonic Knights coming out of Germany into Prussia, brought along with them the Coin of their Country, for before that time the Prussians only barter'd Commodities with their Neighbours. Their chiefest Trade then lay in Electrum, or Amber, of the Na­ture of which, Hartman, a late German Au­thor gives this account. He says, that since it can neither be melted down nor is Malle­able, it is impossible it should be Metal, and because it is too solid a Body to come under the Species of Sulphur, or Bitumen, it must ne­cessarily be rank'd among the precious Stones. This Amber is of divers Colours, and not­withstanding Hartman insinuates it to be al­ways solid, yet is it certain, that sometimes it is as liquid as Oyl. There is a black sort of it, which is no other than what we call Jett.

LETTER VIII.
To the Right Honourable CHARLES Earl of Burlington.

DR. Connor having design'd this Letter for your Lordship's Entertainment, and not having had leisure to accomplish it himself, by reason of the urgency of his Profession, desired of me to Address it for him; but up­on a just Reflection on the meanness of my Abilities, and an awful Regard to your Lordship's Grandeur, I found I had more than ordinary reason to decline it: Yet, however, upon balancing your goodness with your great Quality, and considering my well meaning at the same time with my attempt, I hop'd I might not be so unfortunate as to Offend if I undertook it, and the rather, because of the great conformity which the subject I were to write of, had with the hopes which the Na­tion has in you.

[Page 53] My LORD,

Origin of Teutonic Order. Your Lordship will here find, that this Order was first founded to reward and encourage Great Actions, and that particularly in the Ger­man Nation, whence it came to have the Title of Teutonic; for when the Emperour Frederic Barbe­rossa had engaged in the Crusade for recovery of the Holy-Land, a great number of German Nobility and Gentry joyn'd his Army as Vo­lunteers. Of this Crusade were several other great Princes of Europe, such as Philip King of France; Richard I. King of England; Frederic Duke of Suabia; the Dukes of Austria and Bavaria; Philip Earl of Flanders; Plorant Earl of Holland, &c. After this Emperor's Death, the Germans being before Acon, or Ptolemais which they then besieged, chose for their Leaders Frederick Duke of Suabia, second Son to the aforesaid Emperour; and Henry Duke of Bra­bant. Under these Generals they behav'd themselves so well, both at the taking of Acon, Jerusalem, and other places of the Holy-Land, that Henry King of Jerusalem, the Patriarch, and several other Princes, thought themselves oblig'd to do something extraordinary in honour of the German Nation. Hereupon they immediately resolv'd to erect an Order of Knights of that Nation, under the prote­ction of St. George, but afterwards they chan­g'd that Saint for the Virgin Mary, by reason that she had an Hospital already founded on Mount Sion at Jerusalem for the relief of Ger­man Pilgrims, of the manner of building which, Ashmole, in his Order of the Garter gives this following account.

[Page 54] Who built their Hos­pital of Je­rusalem. He says, that in the time of the Holy-War, a wealthy Gentleman of Germany, who dwelt at Jerusalem, commiserating the condition of his Countrymen coming thither on Devotion, and neither understanding the language of that place, nor knowing where to lodge, receiv'd them hospitably into his House, and gave them all manner of suitable Entertainment. Afterwards obtaining leave of the Patriarch, he erected a Chappel for them, and Dedicated it to the Virgin Mary, whence the Knights that were established there afterwards, came to have the Title of Equites Mariani. Other German Gentlemen contributed largely to the maintaining and encreasing this Charitable Work, insomuch, that in a short time these Knights became very numerous and wealthy, and gave themselves to Military Employments, and to acts of Piety and Charity.

Their Order confirm'd, and by what Title. In the Year 1190 they elected their first Great Master, Henry Walpot, and in the Year following had their Order confirm'd, upon the request of the Emperour Henry VI. by the Rull of Pope Celestine III. under the Title of Teutonic, or Dutch Knights, of the Hospi­tal of St. Mary the Virgin, vowing Poverty, Obedience, and Chastity, and obliging them­selves to receive none but Germans into their Order.

Another Hospital; with their removal in­to Germa­ny and Prussia. After they had thus receiv'd Confirmation from the Papal See, some rich Citizens of Breme and Lubeck joyning with them, and making large Contributions, another Hospi­tal was erected for them in the City of Acon, or Ptolemais in Syria. But after that City, to­gether [Page 55] with Jerusalem, and all the Holy-Land had been taken by the Sarazens, under the Command of Saladin, having been in the possession of the Christians for more than 87 Years before. One Hermannus, then Great Master, with the remaining Knights, remov­ed into Germany, on whom the Emperor Fre­deric XI. and Pope Honorius III. (or as some will have it, Conrade, Duke of Masovia in 1226) in the Year 1229 bestow'd the Pro­vince of Prussia, where having Conquer'd Marien­burg built.that Nation, and reduc'd it from Paganism to Christianity, they built the City of Marien­burg, or Mary-Town; and in the Year 1340, fix'd the Residence of their Great Masters there.

For sake Prussia, and where­fore. This Country they enjoy'd till about the Year 1525, when Albert, Marquess of Bran­denburg, the last Great Master of this Order, by a Solemn Renunciation became Feudatory to Sigismund King of Poland, who rais'd Prussia to a Dukedom, and made this Marquess first Duke thereof; but however, some of the Knights disliking this Action, proceeded to Elect another Great Master, which was Walter de Cronberg, and forthwith leaving Prussia, seated themselves in Germany, where they con­tinue at this day, tho' in no great Reputation, except, that the younger Sons of the German Princes are commonly admitted of their Or­der.

Their Sta­tutes, Ha­bit, Num­ber, and Manners. Their Statutes were compos'd after the Mo­del of those of the Knights Hospitallers, and Knights Templars, at this day the Knights of Malta; but nevertheless, to distinguish them from these Orders, their Habit was ordain'd to be a white Mantle, with a plain black Cross [Page 58] [...] [Page 59] [...] [Page 54] [...] [Page 55] [...] [Page 56] on the Breast, tho' others will have it to have been a black Cross Voided with a Cross- Potence. This Cross they were also to have upon white Banners, as likewise upon their Shields, and in their Coats of Arms: They were more­over enjoyn'd to live conformable to the Or­der and Rules of St. Austin. Their first num­ber was 24 Lay-Brothers, and 7 Priests; yet Heysse, in his History of the Empire, Tome I. says, they were at first 40. They both were allow'd to wear Armour and Swords, and might Celebrate Mass in that Habit. None of them shav'd their Beards, but by their Order were oblig'd to let them grow, and to sleep upon sacks of Straw: But however, this, with their other primitive Injunctions soon vanish'd.

Are much favour'd by several Princes. This order being establish'd after the man­ner as we have shew'd before, all Christian Princes endeavour'd to give them encourage­ment; and among the rest, the Pope and Em­peror gave them particular proofs of their Favour and Liberality. Philip King of France also being willing to do the like on his part, made them great presents, and moreover, granted their Great Master a liberty to wear the Flower deluccs on the 4 extremities of their Cross.

Great Ma­sters in Prussia. Their Power and Force in War will appear in the following succinct account, and Se­ries of their several Great Masters.

I Great Master, 1190. Their first Great Master, as I observ'd be­fore, was Henry Walpot, a Native of Germany, Elected in the Year 1190, who died, and was buried at Acon, or Ptolemais.

[Page 57] II Great Master, 1200. The Second Great Master of this Order was Otho de Kerpen, a Nobleman of Germany, who after having enjoy'd this Office but 6 Years died, and was buried at Acon.

III Great Master, 1206. The Third Great Master was Herman Barth of Alsace, who was Elected under Pope Inno­cent III. and the Emperour Philip II. he pre­sided over these Knights only 4 Years, then died, and was buried at Acon. Under these two Great Masters this Order first began to encrease and flourish.

IV Great Master, 1210. The fourth Great Master was Herman a Sal­zen, a Nobleman of Misnia, under the seve­ral Pontificates of Pope Innocent III. Honorius, and Gregory IX. and in the Reigns of the Em­peror's Otho and Frederic II. This Master ob­tain'd great Privileges for his Order, both from the aforesaid Popes and Emperors. And John King of Jerusalem, for their having protected him against Conrade King of Syria, added to the Arms of this Order, a Cross- Po­tence Or, which were the proper Ensigns of that Kingdom. In his time Conrade, Mar­quess of Thuringen was admitted of the Order. He had above 2000 German Noblemen and Knights in his Order at once, all which he govern'd for about 30 Years. During his Administration, his Order having been dri­ven out of the Holy-Land by the Sarazens, set­led in Prussia to the number of 20000, and by help of the Poles, soon expell'd the Pa­gan Prussians out of the Province of Culmige­ria, He lies buried at Marienburg, which he built.

[Page 58] V Great Master, 1240. The Fifth Great Master was Conrade Mar­quess of Thuringen, who was Elected under the Pontificat of Celestine IV. and the Reign of the Emperour Frederic II. He very much augmented the Conquests of his Order, and restor'd many ruinous Fabricks. He built Koningsberg, in Ducal- Prussia, and lies buried at Marienburg.

VI Great Master, 1252. The Sixth Great Master was Poppo ab Oster­naw, in the time of Pope Innocent IV. and of the Emperour Conrade IV. He had several glorious Conquests over the Prussians, Livoni­ans, and Swentopelus Duke of Pomerania, but at length, before the City of Lignitz, was kill'd and routed by the Tartars, who had al­most over-run all Sarmatia (Poland) and was afterwards buried at Uladislaw. It is said that the aforesaid Swentopelus had been so extream­ly beaten by these Knights, that he was forc'd to clap up a Peace with them, and afterwards on his Death-bed, earnestly recommended to his Children, to preserve the Friendship he had Contracted: But however, Mestowin, his eldest Son forgetting his Father's Orders, de­clar'd War anew against them, but being likewise beaten, the Knights over-run all Po­merania, and at length forc'd this Duke to a Peace: And moreover, 3 of his Brothers, whereof the Eldest was nam'd Sambor, be­came Knights of this Order.

VII Great Master, 1263. The Seventh Great Master of the Teutonic Order was Johannes Sangerhusensis, who took upon him that Office under the Pontificat of Ale­xander [Page 59] IV. He very much allay'd the Insolence of the Pagan Prussians, and in great measure, regain'd the credit of his Order forfeited to the Tartars. He Rul'd 12 Years, and lies bu­ried at Treves. In his time the City of Bran­denburg was built.

VIII Great Master, 1275. The Eighth Great Master was Hartman Count of Heidelberg, who was Elected in the time of Pope Clement IV. and of the Empe­rour Rodolfe I. He was a very industrious Person, and got great ground of the Prussians. In his time the Castle of Marienburg was built in the Year 1281. He dy'd, and was buried at Venice.

IX Great Master, 1283. The Ninth Great Master of this Order was Buchardus à Swenden, Elected in the time of Pope John, and the Emperour Rodolfe I. Un­der his Administration of Affairs the Prussians were totally reduc'd. After 7 Years enjoy­ment of his Office, he Abdicated it, and liv'd afterwards at Rhodes, where he lies buried.

X Great Master, 1290. The Tenth Great Master was Conrade de Feuchtwangen, who was Elected in the time of the Emperour Rodolfe I. and Pope Nicholas IV. Altho' this Order made considerable progress under his Administration, yet, at length, it receiv'd a great check in Syria, where the City of Acon, which had been the chief Seat of this Order for some time, was taken by the Souldan of Aegypt. He died at Pra­gue, and was buried at Trebnicz.

XI Great Master, 1297. The Eleventh Great Master was Godfrey Count of Hohenloh, who was Elected, Adol­phus [Page 60] being Emperour, and Celestine V. Pope. He was a Venetian born, and govern'd this Or­der 10 Years; he retook Riga in Livonia from the Russians, and caus'd its Fortifications to be demolished, but not long after he restor'd the Inhabitants to their antient Privileges, ha­ving built a Castle there to awe them. He at length resign'd his Office, and dy'd in Ger­many.

XII Great Master, 1307. The Twelfth Great Master was Sigfridus de Feuchtwangen, in the time of Albert Duke of Austria's being Emperour, and Clement Pope. He remov'd his Seat from Marpurg to the Ca­stle of Marienburg; for this Order had resided there ever since their being oblig'd to leave Syria. This Master rul'd only 2 Years, and died and was buried at Marienburg.

XIII Great Master, 1309. The Thirteenth Great Master was Charles Beffart, Elected in the Reign of the Emperour Henry, and the Pontificate of Pope Clement V. He was a very Wise and Warlike Person, and in the Year 1312 founded the Castle of Memula in Courland, to hinder the Incursions of the Lithuanians. Upon his return from Rome, whither he had been cited for, and cleared of Male-Administration, he died at Vienna, where he lies buried.

XIV Great Master, 1322. The Fourteenth Great Master was Vernerus Urselensis, Elected in the time of the Emperour Lewis V. and Pope John. He executed his Trust with a great deal of Fidelity and Bra­very, and was afterwards Murther'd by a Bro­ther of the Order, one John Bunsdorfius, while [Page 61] he was going out of the Church from Vespers.

XV Great Master, 1325. The Fifteenth Great Master was Lewis D. of Brunswick. He was a very Prudent and Pi­ous Man, but rul'd only four Years.

XVI Great Master, 1329. The Sixteenth Great Master was Districhus Count Algemburg, Elected when he was 80 Years old. He was a Person of Great Elo­quence, Authority and Justice. After having built St. Mary's Church at Marienburg, he died at Thorn, and was buried at St. Anns in Mari­enburg.

XVII Great Ma­ster, 1339. The Seventeenth Great Master was Rodolfe Duke of Saxony, Elected in the time of the Emperour Lewis V. and Pope Benedict XI. He gather'd great Forces together, and Besieg'd and took Neumarcovia. In the Interim the Lithuanians invaded Prussia, over-running all with Fire and Sword, which this good Master took so much to heart, that he first became Mad, then was deposed from his Office, and afterwards died of Grief at Marienwerder, where he was buried.

XVIII Great Ma­ster, 1342. The Eighteentth Great Master was Henry de Desmer, or Tuchmer, Elected in the Pontifi­cate of Clement VI. He had a Famous Bat­tle with the Lithuanians and Russians, where­in he kill'd above 10000 of the Enemy. He died and was buried at Marienburg.

XIX Great Master, 1348. The Nineteenth Great Master was Henry de Kniprodien, Elected in the time of Pope Cle­ment VI, and of the Emperor Charles III. [Page 62] The foregoing War with the Lithuanians and Russians broke out a fresh in his time, wherein the Great Duke of Lithuania, Keystutus, was taken Prisoner and carried to Marienburg, whence he afterwards escap'd by means of a Servant. In this Great Master's time, one of the Sons of the aforesaid Great Duke became a Christian at Koningsberg, and afterwards was made a Prince of the Empire, by the Empe­rour Charles IV. During his Administration, which was about 31 Years, this Order abound­ed in Learned Men. He died at Marienburg, and was there buried.

XX Great Master, 1379. The Twentieth Great Master was Conrade Zolner, Elected in the time of the Emperour Wenceslaus, and of Pope Urban VI. He had several contests with the Lithuanians and Sa­mogitians, during the several Reigns of Key­stutus, Jagello, Votoldus, and Suidrigielo, Great Dukes of Lithuania. He died and was bu­ried at Marienburg, after 8 Years Administra­tion of the Government of this Order.

XXI Great Master, 1388. The Twenty first Great Master was Conrade de Valenroden, Elected during the Papacy of Pope Boniface. He was a Person of a very Warlike Disposition, but withal of an odd Temper: He hated and refus'd his Ecclesia­stical Brothers access to him at the hour of his Death. In his time this Order made a De­scent upon Lithuania, by way of the River Niemen, and built three Magazines near the Castle of Cowno, by help of which they made great devastations in that Country for a consi­derable time.

[Page 63] XXII Great Ma­ster, 1394. The Twenty second Great Master was Con­rade de Jungingen. He was of a very peace­able Temper, and therefore not much be­lov'd by his Order. However, he rul'd 12 Years, and afterwards died at Marienburg, and was there buried.

XXIII Great Ma­ster, 1404. The Twenty third Great Master was Ulric de Jungingen, Brother to the aforesaid Conrade. He was Elected in the time of the Emperour Rupert, and of Pope Gregory XII. He was of a Warlike Temper, and to that degree, that he deviated not a little from his Order: He Persecuted his Brothers, and took several of their Possessions from them. After several Wars had with the Poles and Lithuanians, Ja­gello, King of Poland, and Vitoldus, Great Duke of Lithuania gave him a total over­throw, wherein this Great Master with about 200 Commendadors, and 5000 other Knights was kill'd, and his General taken Prisoner, altho' at the first onset the Lithuanians lost a­bout 7000 Men.

XXIV Great Ma­ster, 1406. The Twenty fourth Great Master was Hen­ry Count of Plaven, Elected in the time of the Emperour Sigismund, and Pope John. This Person was resolv'd to revenge the late over­throw on the Poles, but before he could effect any thing considerable, he was depos'd, thrown into Prison at Engelsburg, and thence remov'd to Lecksteg, where, after 7 years confinement he died in Chains, and was bu­ried at Marienburg.

[Page 64] XXV Great Ma­ster, 1414. The Twenty fifth Great Master was Michael de Sterbergen, Steward of the Houshold to the Emperour Sigismund. In the very first year of his Government Jagello and Vitoldus took from him and destroy'd several Cities, but were at length forc'd to retire. He govern'd this Order 9 years, but afterwards desiring his Quietus, he obtain'd it, died at Dantzic, and was buried at Marienburg.

XXVI Great Ma­ster, 1323. The Twenty sixth Great Master was Paul de Rusdorfien, Elected in the time of Pope Mar­tin: During his Administration several of the Provinces and Cities of Prussia shook off the Teutonic Yoak, and revolted to Casimir IV. King of Poland. He enjoy'd this Office nine Years also, but dying was buried at Ma­rienburg.

XXVII Great Ma­ster, 1432. The Twenty seventh Great Master was Con­rade ab Herlingshausen, Elected in the time of the Emperour Albert III. This Great Master treated Casimir King of Poland at Thorn, where at that time there was an inviolable Peace struck up between them. This Person had no Wars during his Regency, and at last died of Grief, on account of his Brother's pervers­ness. He was buried at Marienburg.

XXVIII Great Ma­ster, 1450. The Twenty eighth Great Master was Lewis ab Herlingshausen, Elected in the time of the Emperour Frederic III. During his Admi­nistration a farther part of Prussia revolted to the aforesaid Casimir, to whom also the Gar­rison of Marienburg sold that City for 476000 Florens, together with several other Cities and Castles. Afterwards the King of [Page 65] Poland enters again into a Peace with this Or­der, by which means he obtain'd Pomerania, for which the Poles had contested with these Knights for upwards of 150 Years, This Great Master died and was buried at Konings­berg.

XXIX. Great Ma­ster, 1467. The Twenty ninth Great Master of this Order was Henry Rhews, Count of Plauen, Elected in the time of the Emperor Frede­ric III. He only govern'd eleven Weeks, and then died and was buried at Koningsberg.

XXX Great Ma­ster. 1468. The Thirtieth Great Master was Henry Count of Richtenberg, Elected in the time of the Emperor Frederic III. and of Pope Six­tus IV. He was a Man of a very turbulent and inexorable temper, for he threw Theodore a Prussian Bishop into Chains, and suffer'd him to die with Hunger. He govern'd this Order twelve Years, and then died at Koningsberg, and was buried there.

XXXI Great Ma­ster, 1480. The Thirty first Great Master was Martin Truchses of Uveczhausen, Elected in the time of the Emperor Frederic III. and of Pope Six­tus IV. He paid Homage and Obedience to Casimir King of Poland, died at Koningsberg, and was buried there.

XXXII Great Ma­ster, 1489. The Thirty second Great Master was John de Tiefen, a Swiss, Elected when Maximilian I. was Emperor, and Julius Pope. The first Year he swore Allegiance to Albert King of Poland, and in the next assisted that King against the Valachians, but by whom he [Page 66] was defeated and killed. He was buried at Koningsberg.

XXXIII Great Ma­ster, 1498. The Thirty third Great Master was Frederic Duke of Saxony, and Marquiss of Thuringen: This Person refus'd to do Homage to the King of Poland, and therefore his Domini­ons were very much ravag'd by the Poles for 12 Years together, and he excluded his Coun­try, at what time he died.

XXXIV Great Ma­ster, 1512. The Thirty fourth and last Great Master of the Teutonic Order in Prussia was Albert Mar­quess of Brandenburg, Nephew to Sigismund I. King of Poland. He was Elected in the time of Maximilian the Emperor, and Pope Julius. The Chapter of this Order chose him in hopes that being so near a Kinsman, he might pre­vail upon the King of Poland, his Uncle to re­store to them what had been taken from them by the Poles; but this Great Master was so far from answering their expectation, that he likewise refus'd to Swear Allegiance to the King of Poland, and fortify'd all his Cities for his Defence, whence it follow'd, that he drew a bloody War upon himself, wherein great numbers were frequently slain and taken on both sides; the particulars of the chiefest of his Actions I thought might not be unacceptable to your Lordship, and which are as follows.

Dantzic B sieg'd by Albert. In the Year 1519, the War broke out be­tween him and his Uncle, and some few places were lost and taken on both sides; but in 1529, Wolfang Duke of Schonemburg, Gene­ral of the Teutonic Army, which consisted of [Page 67] about 10000 Foot, and 4000 Horse, sat down before Dantzick, and from the Bishop's Hill (vulgarly so call'd) threw away near 4000 Bombs into the Town, to little or no purpose, whilst the Besiegers were not a little incom­moded by the Town-Cannon, for scarce a Man durst shew his Head, but he had 40 shot at him. This so discouraged the Besiegers, that the major part of them soon discover'd their Inclinations to be gone, and for that purpose began to Mutiny against their Offi­cers. Whilst they were thus wavering in their Resolutions, and scarce doing any Duty but by compulsion, the Polish Army appear'd, being 12000 Horse, sent by the King to raise the Siege. It was now high time for the Be­siegers Siege rais'd by the Poles.to scamper, which they immediately set about with such Precipitation, that the Poles found it no difficult matter to overtake even their Foot; yet, however, they kill'd some and took others Prisoners. After this the King's Army took in Dirschow, Stargardie, and the strong Castle of Choinicz, and after­wards proceeded on with so great Vigor and Diligence, that most of the Cities and Castles of the Order Surrender'd themselves. By these means the Teutonic Knights were totally expell'd Prussia, which their Great Master Al­bert perceiving, as likewise that he was no longer able to contend with so powerful a Monarch as him of Poland, tho' his Ancestors had formerly done it for many Years, yet then they were in a better condition than he at pre­sent was in, resolv'd to submit himself and his Order to his Uncle's Mercy, which he not long afterwards did in the publick Market­place of Cracow.

[Page 68] Albert submits to Sigis­mund. For this Purpose a Throne was erected for the King, much after the same nature with that wherein he is wont to take the Homage and Oaths of his Subjects after his Coronati­on, as your Lordship may observe in the Let­ter to my Lord Marlborough; then the Mar­quess delivering up the Ensigns of his Order to the King, and swearing all manner of Alle­giance to him, his Majesty return'd him the Ensigns of Prussia, quarter'd with the Polish, and at the same time created him a Duke of part of that Country, which from thence forward has had the Name of Ducal Prussia, and continu'd all along in his Family to this Day.

Great Ma­sters in Germany. The Teutonic Order being thus expell'd Prus­sia, they transferr'd their Chapter to Mergent­heim, or as some say, to Marienthall, in Fran­conia, where they chose

XXXV Great Ma­ster, 1531. Walter de Cronberg for their Thirty fifth Great Master and Administrator of Prussia. This Great Master appeal'd to the Emperor concerning the wrong done to his Order by Albert, as likewise got Albert Excommunica­ted by the Pope. He afterwards took his Seat in the General Diet of the Empire, equal with the Archbishops, as being Great Master of the Teutonic Order. He died after 18 Years Administration of this Office, and was buried at Mergentheim.

XXXVI Great Ma­ster, 1543. The Thirty sixth Great Master was Wolfang Schutzbar, otherwise call'd Milchling, Elected in the Chapter at Spire the 16th of April. He had been Provincial Commander of the [Page 69] Country of Hesse, and was one of the first that went to the assistance of the Emperour Charles V. in his Wars about Religion. He recover'd the Seat of this Order at Marpurg, which had been usurp'd by the Landtgrave of Hesse. After several more famous Actions he dy'd in the Year 1566.

XXXVII Great Ma­ster, 1566. The Thirty seventh Great Master was George Hundt de Menckheim Governour of the Cir­cle of Franconia. He died after 6 years Re­gency at Mergentheim, and was buried there in the Year 1572.

XXXVIII Great Ma­ster, 1572. The Thirty eighth Great Master was Henry de Bobenhausen, Elected at the General Assem­bly of the Knights at Ulm upon the Danube. This Great Master, upon George Frederic Mar­quests of Brandenburg's possessing himself of the Title and Dutchy of Prussia, thought himself oblig'd in the Name of his Order to enter Pro­testations against it. He resign'd his Office to the Chapter after 8 Years Administration.

XXXIX Great Ma­ster, 1587. The Thirty Ninth Great Master of this Or­der, and Administrator of Prussia was Maximi­lian Arch-Duke of Austria, who had earnest­ly Sollicited the Electors for that Charge, and offer'd to wear the Habit of the Order: After­wards being invited to the Crown of Poland, this Order was in great hopes of being resto­red to their Dominions of Prussia, but upon his being defeated by Sigismund III. they soon lost all those hopes. He nevertheless conti­nu'd their Great Master, and being a brave Prince was nam'd for their General against [Page 70] the Turks in Hungary, when he had a Compa­ny of Guards all Knights of the Order. He held his Administration 34 Years, and ended his days at Inspruck, where he was likewise buried.

XL Great Master, 1619. The Fourtieth Great Master was Charles Arch-Duke of Austria, who, after 5 years Regency died at Madrid whither he had been invited by the King of Spain to go his Vice-Roy into Portugal.

XLI Great Master, 1624. The Fourty first Great Master was John Eu­stache de Westernach, who was Elected at Mer­gentheim the 19th of March, in the Year 1625, and died 82 years old, in the Year of our Lord 1627.

XLII Great Master, 1627. The Fourty second Great Master was Gas­pard de Stadion Provincial Commander of Al­sace and Burgundy, and particular Comman­der of Altschausen. He after having govern­ed this Order with great Reputation for four­teen years, desir'd the Chapter to Elect Leopold William Arch Duke of Austria, for his Coadju­tor in the Administration of his Office; and which being done, he gave him the Cross of Prussia as a Testimony of his consent.

XLIII Great Ma­ster, 1644. The Fourty third Great Master was this Le­opold William who succeeded Stadion by Virtue of his former Election. He govern'd this Or­der alone to the Year 1662, when he died at Vienna the 20th of November, and was buri­ed there.

[Page 71] The same Year the Chapter was Conven'd, and would have chosen Charles Joseph Arch-Duke of Austria to have succeeded Leopold William his Brother, but he died the same Year, and thereby their designs were fru­strated.

XLIV Great Ma­ster, 1664. Afterwards the Chapter being Assembled at Mergentheim, in the Year 1664, chose for their Fourty fourth Great Master one of their own Knights, call'd John Gaspard of Ambrin­gens, Provincial Commander of the Circle of Austria, and this they did to prevent the In­trigues which several Princes always made to get Elected to this Dignity.

A Prince of Neu­bourg Ele­cted of the Order. This Great Master Convening the Chapter at Mariendal, receiv'd Duke Lewis Anthony of Neubourg, Abbot of Fescamp, and third Son to Philip William Duke of Neubourg, into this Order.

LETTER IX.
To Sir THOMAS MILLINGTON President of the College of Phy­sicians.

THIS Letter courts your Acceptance on a double score, your Learning and your Profession. As to your Learning, tho' it will doubtless be on all Hands allow'd, that it has no need of Superstructure, yet neverthe­less, sometimes it may require those Diver­sions which are here design'd, and possibly, in part, unknown to you: And as to your Profession, being highly sensible of my im­perfect account of the state of Physick, espe­cially in Poland, I thought no Protection so safe to pass it under as yours. My presumption, I hope, will be justifi'd upon Dr. Connor's first intending these Subjects for your Perusal; [Page 75] and as to my Performance, I entirely submit that to your Candour and Generosity.

SIR,

Two Uni­versities. In the Kingdom of Poland, and Great Dutchy of Lithuania, there are two famous Universities, with all sorts of Professors. The former of these was Founded at Cracow by Casimir the Great, and was finish'd by Jagello, or Uladislaus V. in the Year 1401, conforma­ble to the last Will and Testament of his Queen Hedwigis; And the latter at Vilna, be­ing at first but an Academy Founded by King Stephen, but afterwards was erected into an University by Pope Gregory XIII. at the Re­quest of Valerian Bishop of that City, who had very much augmented the Colleges and Endowments.

Chief Stu­dy there. In both these Universities the Chief Study is to speak good Latin, for as to all parts of Po­lite Learning, the Poles are not so curious as in other Countries, yet have they a great ma­ny that will write good Verses, for their Genius is mightily bent that way; and besides, they are very apt to quote Classick Authors in their Discourse, and this particularly when they get Drunk, which is very frequently. Their Poet Sarbievius Casimir is no small Or­nament to his Country, who, in his Odes, has endeavour'd to imitate Horace; and the Purl­ty of Language is not contemptible.

Learning formerly. They have had several Latin Historians a­mong them, such as Cromerus, Starovolscius, &c. who have all Written the Annals and Con­stitutions of their Country. They have like­wise [Page 76] had some Historians, who have written in their own Language. They also have not wanted for Learned Divines, Great Philoso­phers, Famous Astronomers, Logicians, &c. The great Astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was a Native of this Country, having had his Birth in the City of Thorn in Regal- Prussia. The reason why these Learned Men have not transmitted more to Posterity was, because that while they liv'd there was but little or no Printing in Poland, that Art having been but lately receiv'd in this Kingdom.

Oriental Languages dis-regard­ed. Tho' the Poles are so extreamly expert in Speaking and Writing Latin, yet are they not curious in any of the Oriental Languages. They affect speaking Latin to that degree, that Dr. Connor has inform'd me, that he had a Servant while he was in Poland, that always us'd to talk to him in that Language; and I have moreover read, that almost all the Com­mon People speak Latin fluently there, a proof of which you may please to observe in the first Volume of this History, in the Life of Stephen Batori, who very much pro­moted the Study of that Language.

Present Languages in Poland. As the Poles have the same Origin with the Muscovites, Bohemians, Croatians, Moravians, Sile­sians, Cassubians, Bulgarians, Rascians, Servians, Il­lyrians, &c. so (Cromerus says) they have like­wise the same Language with them, altho' they differ in Dialects, and that scarce to be understood by each other. Their terms of Mechanic Arts are chiefly borrow'd from the Ancient Germans, who formerly had, as still they have, frequent intercourses with [Page 77] this Country. Nay, there are at present whole Towns and Villages that make use of the German Tongue, that Nation having formerly planted several Colonies in this Kingdom. Also there are several of the Noble Families purely German, as may appear both by their Names and Coats of Arms. Likewise He­brew, Armenian, Russian, Tartarian, and in some places Italian, are frequently spoken in this Country.

Polish hard to Pronounce. The Polish Language Cromerus allows, is neither so Copious, nor so easy to Pronounce as those of other Nations, but as the French, Italian, &c. consists chiefly of Vowels, that of Poland is made up in great measure with Consonants, insomuch, that you shall some­times meet with Polish Words that have seven or eight Consonants together without any Vowel, or at most but one, interpos'd, an Ex­ample of which, Sir, you may have in the word Chrzeszcz (Scarabaeus, a Gad-Flie,) this, with divers others in the Polish Tongue, scarce the Natives themselves are able to Pronounce, yet they always have a sort of lisping sound of Vowels in their Pronunciation, tho' they do not write them.

Reasons why the Poles af­fect Latin. It must not be understood, however uni­versally Latin is spoken in Poland, that the Poles have it from their Mothers, as the Com­mon People have in some parts of Hungary, for they take pains to learn it from Masters as o­ther Nations do. The chiefest reasons why they generally Affect it is, First from their Natural Dispositions to learn it. Secondly, By reason of the Syntax of their Mother-Tongue [Page 78] the Sclavonian, which has great Af­finity with that Language, for they both de­cline their Nouns, and Conjugate their Verbs as the Romans did. Thirdly, Because in all the Villages throughout the Nation, they have School-masters for that purpose, who are either Rectors of Parishes, or some other qualifi'd Persons appointed by them, or by the Bishop of the Diocess. And fourthly, because in all Towns of Note, the Jesuits have Colleges set apart to instruct Youth in that Language.

Have no so­lid Learn­ing. As for depth in any Learning or Sciences, Dr. Connor informs me, he could never meet with any Persons in Poland so solidly vers'd in them, as he has done in other Nations, for that the Poles, as soon as they can speak La­tin, and discourse of most matters in that Lan­guage, never think of any farther Know­ledge, but believe they have acquir'd all the Learning, and all Accomplishments that ei­ther Universities or Schools can give them, unless they be Persons that make some parti­cular Science their Profession; As Divines, Physicians, and Lawyers, of all which I shall proceed to give some particular account, as they stand at present in that Nation.

How far that of Di­vines ex­tends. The Divines in Poland make all their Learn­ing consist in adapting Aristotle's Logicks, and Metaphysicks to their School- Divinity, so that you may every where hear them talk much of Entities, Modes, Quiddities, Essences of Things, and the like, for they value themselves more in being well vers'd in the signification of Lo­gical [Page 79] Terms, than in the Nature of Things themselves, which they reason about. In this Country they have a particular Veneration for Albertus Magnus, and quote him to attest the Truth of any Assertion, in like manner as the Spaniards and Italians are accustom'd to do Aristotle, tho' they have not less respect for this last Philosopher than other Nations have. Yet, notwithstanding, they seldom take right his meaning, and particularly in matters that are Ambiguous, for they have Publish'd seve­ral large Commentaries upon him which do frequently contradict one another.

Their Di­vinity. The Polish Divines are seldom well vers'd in Practical Divinity. They study but little the Old and New Testament. They make few Enquiries into the Practice of Primitive Christianity, and know little of Church-Hi­story. In a word, they trouble their Heads but seldom about convincing their Reason of the Sublimity and Goodness of the Christian Doctrine; implicit Faith, and Passive Obedi­ence to Council and Church-Decisions being entirely their Guides. They will allow of no body's enquiring into the reasonableness of Things, as if they should imagine, that a Law, or a Doctrine given by God should not be consistent with Reason. They have a more than ordinary respect for Thomas Aquinas, and Scotus, and their principal Erudition consists in being well Read in the School-Points con­troverted by those two Great Men.

Lawyers; their num­ber and stu­dy. As for Lawyers there are a great number in Poland, and that chiefly at the two Great Tri­bunals of Petricovia and Lublin. These study [Page 08] the Civil- Law, tho' they have likewise several Statutes of their own which they term Con­stitutions.

Who seldom go to Law. The Grandees of the Kingdom seldom go to Law, for they generally decide their Quar­rels by the Sword, bringing numerous Ar­mies into the Field against each other: But if it happen sometimes that they do condescend, to submit to Justice, even then their Pride will never allow them to refer their Case to any other Court than the Grand Diet. Also the Polish Nation in general is not much en­clin'd to go to Law, by reason of the litigi­ousness and corruption of the Lawyers, for the Poles have as little Opinion of the honesty of that Profession as any People in Europe.

A suppos'd Judgment on a Law­yer. Dr. Connor was once sent for to a Lawyer that lay sick at Warsaw. His Disease, the Dr. says, was a Cancer on his Tongue, which had swell'd it to that prodigious bigness, that it had not only fill'd all his Mouth, but also hung about an Inch out of it, insomuch, that he could neither speak one word, nor breath through his Lips, but had that bene­fit only by his Nose. This Disease, the Dr. says, he at first judg'd to be incurable, and so in effect it prov'd, for he died soon after. This Person it seems had purchas'd a plenti­ful Estate by the Law, wherefore the People could not be perswaded but that the cause of his Death was a Judgment upon him, believ­ing it Just, I suppose, that that Tongue which had been the occasion of wronging so many People, should nevertheless do Justice on its Master.

[Page 81] Physicians, and their Abilities. As for Physicians in Poland, there are no great number there, and those few that are, for the most part are either French, Italians, or Germans, scarce any of the Natives caring to addict themselves to that Profession; for having little conveniency to improve them­selves in it in their own Country, none but the richer sort of Gentry can bear the expence of going to learn it in Foreign Countries, and then such of the Nobility as do Travel are generally either too Lazy or too Proud to ap­ply themselves to what requires so much fa­tigue to study, and so much judgment after­wards to put in Practise. This, Sir, is the reason why the Poles have hardly any Person throughly learn'd in this Profession.

Not allow­ed to study till qualifi­ed. Dr. Connor tells me, that he met with a young Physician at Rome, that came thither from Poland to pick up Experience. Some of his Country-men that were then in that City told the Doctor, that he was Son to a rich Pea­sant in their Nation, and that his Father was Vassal, as they term'd him, or Slave to one Starosta Cowalski; moreover, that his Father, for the consideration of 100 Rixdollars had bought his Freedom, and afterwards sent him to the University, and from thence to Travel, for without having first bought his Liberty he could not have sent him out of the Service of his Lord, his Service being as much the Lord's Inheritance as his Land was.

Discourges Learning. By all this, Sir, you may perceive what discouragement Learning meets with in Po­land; for the Common People there, who [Page 82] make about nine parts in ten of the whole Nation, are either thro' Poverty or Slavery render'd incapable of addicting themselves to it, and it is certain, that in all Ages, Persons of the meanest Birth have ever made the greatest progress in Sciences, and this, by rea­son that their Bodies are apter for fatigue, and that they have no other ways to subsist than by their Merit.