CHAP. I. The Description of Countries conducible to the Description of Cities and Towns of Traffick.

The De­scription of Countries, conduceth to the De­scription of Cities and Towns of Traffick. BEFORE I descend to the particular parts of this Treatise, and before I describe the Situations of these Towns and Cities of Traffick, which here I intend to handle, I must of necessity for Method-sake, first by a cursory draught describe the Countries, Kingdoms, and Provinces, wherein the same are found to be situated and placed, and to do the same orderly, and as the Subject requireth, it is fit I should survey the means whereby the same is or may be performed, which according to the opinion of the Learned, is noted only to be done by the knowledge of Geography; which in it self is esteemed to be a knowledge so needful and requisite for a Merchant, Factor, or any other active person whose occasions may draw him to see or abide in forein parts, that it may not be neglected nor omitted. Neither is it held only necessary to such as manage private affairs by Merchandizing, as Merchants or Factors, who are led thereto by the Motive profit, but also such persons as are more eminent, and such as are of greater quality, whose motives are the publick affairs of Princes, as Ambassadors; or pleasure and delight, by Travelling, as Gentltmen, whose motive may be properly termed curiosity of mind and search of novelty; whicd last by observing the Fashions and Manners of divers Nations, and the Government and Policies of those Kingdoms, do dot only very much benefit themselves, but better their udnerstandings thereby, making their knowledge more ca­pable of either publick or private imployment, when they return to their native houses.

The like I conceive the ingenious Merchant or Factor may (if he please) do, for being in his younger years imployed abroad in merchandizing, he may by well husbanding his merchantile imployment and time, join a future benefit of Mind, to a present profit of Estate; and by a provident judgment, and a judicious Providence, so manage his idle hours, and vacant time, that he fit his capacity, not only wisely to undertake and discreetly to undergo, but also skil­fully to perform the greatest imployments that are incident to the service of a State or King­dom; neither is it a rare or extraordinary thing to find those that have had their education thus, to have proved not only good Comman-wealths-men, but also excellent States-men: our own Country hath afforded some examples in all ages, but in other Countries many more are daily found; for it must be acknowledged, that from this School those ripe and mature judgments have sprung up, that in many Countries abroad, have given sufficient testimony to the World of their excellent abilities this way: and that the Art of Merchandizing, together with the frequenting of forein Countries, at the first to that end, hath afterward rather furthered, than any way backwarded their abilities to undertake, and judiciously to perform the same.

Merchandi­zing the first School of the present Government of many Common-wealths,The ancient policies and present flourishing continuance of the State of Venice, the politick and rich Estates of the Netherlands, the opulent and eminent quality of the Duke of Tuscany; the wealthy well-governed Hans-Towns in Germany, (and many more which I could nomi­nate,) make good this Assertion; for in all these, Merchandizing is found to be the School from whence they gather their first Principles, and indeed the chief Foundation upon which their Fabrick of political Government is raised: the Scale by which their Counsels are framed, and the Pillars by which the same is seen to be supported and maintained.

How excellent is it then for a Merchant (that hath another proper and peculiar end of his travels,) so to imploy his time and spend his hours, as that he may at pleasure, without cost or charges, reap that benefit to himself which others purposely come to learn and painfully labour for, with great expence of time and money: and yet for all this, are peradventure de­stitute of those helps and furtherances, which Merchants and Factors by reason of their abode [Page 2]or vocation do continually enjoy, and who return as ignorantly home (perchance) as they went out; or happily furnished with some such cursory speculations, as reach not into the depth of such policies of Government, as the real intent of their travel doth truly require; whereas the Merchant that comes thither, not purposely to that end, but to benefit himself as a Merchant, may gather and lay up those his Observations obtained as Pastimes, and collected as Recreations, which will further and furnish him afterward, either by discourse for pleasure, or by necessity for profit and commodity, when he shall please to publish his secret treasure and put the same in practice.

Geography delightful, profitable, and necessa­ry to the Merchant. Geography (by what hath been said,) being then granted to be both a profit and a pleasure to all, and specially to the Merchant, it must necessarily be granted to be useful also: for though we living in this Island acknowledge none for Merchants but such as adventure their Estates at Sea, and are by this means accounted for real Merchants; yet those that are versed in this Profession, and seen in this Art, know also that there be Merchants likewise that have their resi­dence in Continents, where neither Seas are known, nor yet Navigable Rivers sound, yet for all this, supply with Land-Carriages of Horses Mules and Camels, by industry and labour, what Nature and our Habitation doth freely afford unto us, by the commodity of the incom­passed Seas in Shipping; and these are observed and found to travel by Land in Companies and Caravans with their Merchandize from one Country to another, (as we do by Sea in Ships and Fleets (paying their Duties, Customs, and Tolls upon the entry and confines of every several Princes Dominions.

The com­modity of this know­ledge to Merchants.How then shall this Land-travelling Merchant know whose Kingdom he is in? what Prince commands, or who is Lord of that ground he treads upon, but by a speculation herein? Whereby shall he know what way he hath rid and travelled, where neither miles nor Leagues are accounted, or in use, but by this? How shall he know which way his course lies, where neither paths nor high-ways are found to direct him, nor guide to inform him; or how far he hath yet to go in that Princes Dominion, but by this? How shall he know what Rivers run in his way, what Straits or Mountains he hath to pass over, but by this? Nay, hereby he is instru­cted whether those streams be great or small; and whether passable by Boat, Bridge or Foord; and by this also what Plains, Woods and Hills, with their extent, fertility, and confinement, the better to provide for his accommodation, and the necessaries of his Journey; as also what Cities and Towns of Traffick stand in his Road; the limits and bounds of Kingdoms, the disposi­tion of the Inhabitants, the alteration of the Climates, the Laws of those several Regions, the Commodities that those Countries do afford for Merchandizing; the plenty and scarcity there­of; and lastly, how they are supplied with forein Wares and Merchandizes, either by Lands, Seas, or navigable Rivers; and all these (besides many other needful lessons) may be hence learn­ed and observed, which laid up in memory both in the course of his life and traffick, may in after-times much profit and advantage him. The benefit reaped thereby being thus briefly expressed, the thing it self challengeth in the next place to be handled; which according to my skill and insight, I shall succinctly touch so far as is needful to my present purpose.

Geography demonstra­ted. Geography in brief then, is an Art that doth demonstrate by rules in a flat, level or Plano, the whole Sea and Earth, and the division thereof, setting down by a certain method, the limits and extents of Countrïes, Provinces and Dominions of Princes; the situation of Cities, Towns, Hills, Rivers, Woods, &c. The bounds of Seas, Capes, Islands, &c. All which is performed and expres­sed by apt lines, numbers and parts of the Heavens; and lastly, it giveth rules to know the di­stances of the said places, either in leagues or miles from one Country, City or place to another; all which being also necessary to be known by the Merehant, I will in few words declare the same

Maps and Cards.First then to make the same more evident, the ground of this Art is ordinarily demonstrated and best expressed in Maps and Cards, which do comprize both the Earth and Waters, of which making one entire body, the Cosmographers do environ with five Circles; the first is the Equinoctial, then the two Tropicks, and lastly the two Polar Circles; thereby dividing the whole, which now we call the World, into five Zones, two whereof are found to be cold, two temperate, and one extreme hot; all which in these our days are found to be habitable, con­trary to the opinion of some ancient Cosmographers: of which Circles and their particular parts, divisions, demonstrations and descriptions, it will not be unproper I should briefly handle, as an entrance into this work, and for the better understanding of what is to follow hereafter.

The use of Maps and Cards in ge­neral.Every Map or Card then for the most part is commonly traced with two sorts of lines, or circles, that is, Meridians and Parallels; Meridian.the Meridians are either Right or Circular lines, pas­sing through both the Poles of the World, and are imagined to be drawn right up and down from the head to the foot of the Map, and called Meridians, because that when the Sun com­eth to touch any of those lines, it is mid-day to those that dwell under the same.

[Page 3] Parallel.And Parallels are either right or circular lines, imagined to be equally distant one from ano­ther, which do cross the aforesaid Meridians with right Angles; and in the very midst of these Universal Maps and Cards, are most commonly drawn, from head to foot a right line, which signifieth not only the first Meridian, but also the Axletree of the World; Poles Artick and Antar­tick.the upper end of which line is call'd the Pole-Artick, or the North-Pole, and the nether end is called the Pole-An­tartick, or the South-Pole, Equinoctialand this line is crossed in the very midst betwixt the two Poles, with another great circle, or rather right line called the Equinoctial; because, that when the Sun cometh to touch this line or circle, the day and night is equal throughout the whole World, the one half of which line towards the right hand, sheweth the East part, and the other half to­wards the left hand, sheweth the West part of the World; so as those two lines, the first Me­ridian and the Equinoctial, do point out the four Quarters of the World; East, West, North, and South, from whence the four principal winds do blow, between which winds are set down in all general Maps, and generally in all Sea-Cards, the other division of the winds, which as not much pertinent to my present purpose, I willingly omit.

Further, It is to be noted that both the Equinoctial and the Meridian Circles or Lines are di­vided each of them into 360 degrees; so as every quarter of them containeth 90 degrees: and in the Equinoctial are set down the degrees of Longitude, which is the length of the World, round about from West to East, and from East by West home again. The first degree whereof beginneth where the first aforesaid Meridian crosseth the Equinoctial, in the very midst of all Universal Maps in general, and so proceedeth Eastward unto the number of 180 degrees; which is as far as you can go Eastward: for from thence by reason of the roundness of the Earth, you must needs turn back again Westward, until you come to the 360 degrees, which is the last degree of Longitude, and endeth where the first degree beginneth.

Moreover, In the said first Meridian are set down the degrees of Latitude, that is, breadth of the World, both in Nor hern and Southern; for from the Equinoctial to the North-Pole, are contained in the aforesaid Meridian 90 degrees, and that is called the North Latitude; and from the Equinoctial to the South-Pole are contained in the said Meridian, other 90 degrees, which is called the South Latitude; and in most Maps the Equinoctial Line is divided and crossed with 18 Meridians, on each side of the first Meridian, dividing the Equinoctial into 36 several distances; every distance containing 10 degrees, and every degree containeth 60 Italian miles of length.

Circles Ar­tick and An­tartick.Again, betwixt the Equinoctial and each of the Poles are drawn certain Circles or Lines, which as I said before, are called Parallels, of which most commonly it is found that four are pointed with red Ink, signifying the four lesser Circles; the highest towards the North-Pole, is called the Circle-Artick, which is 23½ degrees distant from the Pole; and the lowest towards the South Pole is call'd the Circle-Antartick, which is also distant 23½ degrees from the Pole; 2 Tropicks. 1 Cancer, 2 Capricornand as touching the other two red Circles, the one lying betwixt the Circle-Artick and the Equi­noctial, it is called the Tropick of Cancer; and the other lying betwixt the Equinoctial and the Circle Antartick, that is called the Tropick of Capricorn, and each of these two Tropicks is di­stant from the Equinoctial 23 degrees, 2. 8. ½ which is the greatest declination of the Sun; for betwixt these two Tropicks the Sun continually maketh his course, and returneth, mounting never higher than the Tropick of Cancer, nor descending never lower than the Tropick of Capri­corn: for which cause some do set down in their Maps betwixt the said two Tropicks an over­thwart line, signifying the Ecliptick line, under which the Sun continually walketh.

Five Zones and where placed.Furthermore, By help of the said four Circles, the Earth, (as I said before) is divided into five Zones, one hot, two temperate, and two cold: The hot is contained betwixt the two Tro­picks, in the midst of which the Equinoctial line is placed; of the two temperate Zones, the one lieth betwixt the Tropick of Cancer, and the Circle Artick, and the other betwixt the Tropick of Capricorn and the Circle Antartick; and of the cold Zones; the one lieth betwixt the North Pole and the Circle Artick, and the other betwixt the South Pole and the Circle An­tartick.

Moreover, besides the four special Parallels, there be also divers other Parellels drawn on each of the Equinoctial, both Northward, and Southward, which crossing in certain points, the first Meridian marked with degrees, do shew the true Latitude of every place, and under what Clime or Parallel it is: and also how many hours the longest day of any place under every Parallel is, beginning to account the same, either from the Equinoctial upward, to­wards the North Pole, along the first Meridian, marked with degrees of Northern Latitude, or else from the first Equinoctial downwards towards the South Pole, marked with degrees of Sou­thern Latitude.

The divisi­on of the World into four parts.Also this World in all common Maps and Cards is divided into four parts, Europe, Africk, Asia and America, the bounds whereof will not be amiss here to be observed, and how many miles each particular division containeth, as well in Longitude as in Latitude, according to the opini­on of Mercator, whom I willingly follow for my director in this point.

[Page 4] Europe. Europe then is bounded on the North with the North Ocean Sea, and on the South with the Mediterranean Sea; on the East with the Flood Tanais, and on the West with the West Oceane and Europe in measuring with a right line from the farthest part of Ireland on the West unto the Flood Tanais, on the East, both places having 52 degrees of Latitude, Long. 2166 miles.hath in Longitude 2166 miles, and in measuring with a right line, from the farthest part of Morea on the South, whose Latitude is 35 degrees unto the North Sea side, having 72 degrees of Latitude, Lat. 2220 miles.hath in Longitude 2220 miles, or thereabouts.

Africa. Africa is bounded on the North with the Straight Sea Gibralter, and with the Mediterranean Sea; and on the South with a Sea which divideth Africa from the South Land, not yet to us fully known; and on the East with the Red Sea, and on the West with the great Atlantick Ocean: and in the measuring of Africa with a right line, from Gambra on the West, unto the Cape de Gardaso on the East, both places having 10 degrees of North Latitude, Long. 4425 miles.hath in Longitude 4425 miles, and in measuring with a right line from the 50. degree of the Equinoctiall unto the Medi­terranean Sea, it hath in North Latitude 32 degrees, which multiplied by 60, maketh 1920 miles, and in South Latitude measuring with a right line from the 50. degree of the Equinoctial unto the Cape of bona Esperansa, it hath 35 degrees, which also multiplied by 60 makes 2100 miles, Lat. 4020 mileswhich maketh the whole Latitude of Africa to be 4020 miles, or thereabouts.

Asia. Asia is bounded on the North, with the North Ocean Sea, and on the South, partly with the Red Sea, and partly with the other Seas and Gulphs adjoyning thereto; on the East with the East India Ocean, and the Straight Sea of Anian; and on the West with the Flood Tanais and Fens of Meotis, with the Cimmerian and Thracian Bosphorus, the Euxine and Mediterranean Sea, and part of the Arabian Gulph: and Asia then in measuring with a right line from the mouth of the Flood Tanais, to the Promontory Tamos, both places having 50 degrees of Latitude; Long. 4284hath in Longitude 4284 miles, and in measuring with a right line from the 150. degree of the Equinoctial, unto the Promontory Tabin; it hath in North Latitude 75 degrees, Latit. 4500.which being mul­tiplied by 60 maketh 4500 miles.

America. America is bounded on the North with the North Ocean Sea, and on the South with the Magellanick Sea; on the East with the Atlantick Ocean; on the West with the West Indian Ocean, and the Straights of Anian, and in measuring with a right line from the Straights of Anian to the furthest part of Estotiland upon the 64. degree of Latitude, hath in Longitude 164 degrees, Long. 4264.which maketh 4264 miles, and in measuring with a right line from the 270, degree of the Equinoctial unto the North Sea: it hath in North Latitude 76 degrees, which makes 4560 miles, and in measuring with a right line from the 305. degree of the Equinoctial unto the Magellanick Sea; it hath in South Latitude 53 degrees, Latit. 3210.which makes at 60 miles the degree, 3210 miles.

Thus far shall suffice to have spoken in general of the Lines, Circles, and Divisions of the Universal Maps, and Cards found to be made by our Modern Cosmographers. That which cometh in the next place to be handled, as the more material and useful part, belonging to my present work, is the knowledge and situation of every Kingdom, Region, City, Mountain, Flood, and Lake found in this circumference: also the knowledge of the Seas, together with the Islands, Ports, Capes, Points and Bays which do belong to every one of the aforesaid parts and divisions of the World, and that are found therein comprised, which principally is manifested and learned by the Longitude and Latitude thereof in it self, which teacheth these particulars: Latitude how accoun­ted.First, The very situation of the place; Secondly, The very distance from one place or City to another; Thirdly, How one place lieth from another; And lastly, With what wind you may sail from one Point, Cape or City maritime to another: in which four things the chief use of Maps are found principally to consist. First then, The degrees of Latitude or the elevation of the Pole) being both one thing) is accounted from the Equinoctial to either Pole which is 90 degrees, and the degrees of Longitude accounted upon the said Equinoctial from the Isles of Cape Verde towards the East; and so round about the Earth till you come to the number of 360 de­grees: where it is to be noted, that the Provinces and Towns situated under one and the same degree of Latitude, have at the same time like hours of the day; but those that are situated under divers degrees of Longitude do differ in number of hours; and that is the cause that when it is in one Town noon-tide, it is in another Town distant thence 30 degrees towards the East two a clock in the afternoon, and so consequently for every 15 degrees distance, it is then found to differ one hour in time.

Days and nights differ according to the Latitude.Also those that dwell under one and the self same degree of Latitude have equal quantity of days and nights; but yet so as they which dwell on the South side of the Equinoctial have the shortest day, when we have the longest, and have their Winter when we have Summer: and those that are under divers degrees of Latitude, have inequality of days and nights; for the nigher that any place is situated towards any of the Poles, the more hours the longest day of the year in that place hath; and those that dwell under the Equinoctial have always their days and nights of like quantity: but I understand here by the day, the space between Sun-rising and Sun-setting; [Page 5]so that to those that have 30 degrees of Latitude, the longest day is almost 14 hours, and the nigher the Pole, the longer, insomuch as those that dwell under the Pole, and whose Zenith is the Pole, their year is but a day and a night, that is to say, they have six months day, and six months night.

It is also to be noted, that the Meridians are sound to have many necessary uses in the general and common Maps, for thereby is learned that it is noon tide or mid day sooner in one place than in another, by observing that Meridian that is most towards the East; which the Sun toucheth always sooner than that Meridian which is more towards the West.

Meridians and their use.By the Meridian is also known how the Eclipse of the Moon appeareth sooner to one place than to another, and sheweth what variety of time; for they whose Meridian is toward the West, do see the Moon sooner than they whose Meridian is more towards the East; Eclipse of the Moon when seen.whereas indeed the Eclipse of the Moon is seen to all places (where it can be seen) at one very instant of like greatness, and yet seemeth to be seen later or sooner by reason of the diversity of the time of the day, in places standing one East or West from another; and if the distance betwixt those two Meridians do contain 15 degrees of the Equinoctial, then the Eclipse appeareth to be sooner to the one than to the other by one whole hour, according to my former assertion, for every 15 degrees maketh an hour, and therefore observe how many 15 de­grees you find betwixt the two Meridians, so many hours are to be accounted; and if fewer de­grees be found, then the time of the Eclipse is to be shortned accordingly, attributing four mi­nutes of an hour to one degree, &c.

Eclipse of the Sun when seen.As for the Eclipse of the Sun, it is seen neither generally nor fully at one self-same time, nor yet of the same greatness in all places: indeed it appears sooner to the Western Countries than to the Eastern; but the diversity of the time of appearance doth depend not only on the num­ber of Meridians betwixt the two places, but also of the swift or slow motion of the Moon, which coming betwixt us and the Sun taketh the sight of the Sun from us.

Latitude and Longi­tude found out by the Meridians,The Latitude and Longitude of Cities and places may be found out by the Meridians also; but here it is observable, that the degrees of Latitude are in all places of like bigness, as making ever 60 miles, but the degrees of Longitude proceeding from the Equinoctial towards any of the two Poles, are unequal, and every one shorter than the other, and containing four miles; so that if two Ships were under the Equinoctial 150 degrees distant each from other, and being to sail towards the North Pole, upon the same course when they come to the 60 de­gree of Latitude, their distance shall be but 76 leagues, and the farther they go towards the Pole, the less distance they shall be one from the other, insomuch as when they are right under the Pole it self, they shall both meet: but this point more particularly concerns Navigation, which so far forth as it is requisite to the knowledge of a Merchant, I have handled in my Book of the Factors Aviso, which together with a Collection of the Sea-laws, I intend (God willing) hereafter to publish,

Now forasmuch as the use of these Latitudes and Longitudes is most necessary and needful in this Art, it is proper I should set down the ways whereby not only these Latitudes and Lon­gitudes, but also the distances of all Cities and places by all universal Maps and Sea Cards that are perfectly drawn and delineated, is learned and found out.

To find out the Longi­tude of a place.First then, To find out the Longitude of any place, do thus: Extend a thred so as it pass through the Pole and through the place whose Longitude you seek in any Map or Card, even to the very Equinoctial and somewhat beyond, holding the thred strait, and then the number of degrees written upon the Equinoctial or Parallel will shew the Longitude.

Again. By the Meridians likewise are known what Longitude any place in the Map hath: as thus; set the one foot of a pair of Compasses in the place it self, and the other in some Meridian, that is next unto it, whether on the right hand, or on the left, it matters not; from thence draw down your Compass, following still that Meridian until you come to the Equinoctial line, and there mark upon what degree of the Equinoctial that foot of the Compass which you did first put in the place doth rest; then count how many degrees that is distant from the first Meridian, and that is the true Longitude of the place; and note, that that Longitude serveth to all the places that be under that Meridian, though they be never so far distant one from another North and South.

To find out the Latitude of a place.Now for the Latitude of that place or any other, do thus: Set the one foot of your Com­passes in the very Pole, extending the other to the Place or City whose Latitude you seek, and keeping your Compass at that wideness, bring the moveable foot to the first Meridian whereon the degrees of Latitude are marked, and there staying it, the number of the degrees counting from the Equinoctial upwards towards the Pole, will shew the Latitude of the place sought; and note, that the like Latitude have all they that dwell under that Parallel, how far soever they dwell asunder East and West, and by knowing the Latitude of any place, you may quickly also find in some Maps under what Clime or Parallel such a [...] [...], and of how many hours the longest day is there.

[Page 6]Now to know how one place beareth from another and with what wind your Ship is to be directed from one Maritime Port to another, is needless here to be handled, as not pertinent to my task; but for what distance is betwixt two several places, many Cosmographers have found, by several ways taught the same; one only, the most common in use, I will pitch upon, as the most facile and easie.

To find out the distance of two pla­ces or Cities.To find out then the distance betwixt any two places, do thus: Set the one foot of your Compass on the one place, and the other foot on the other place, and apply that wideness to the Equinoctial, and look how many degrees of the Equinoctial that wideness comprehendeth, and allowing 60 Italian miles to every degree, you shall have the distance by a right line of those two places demanded.

But if the said two places have both either North or South Latitude, then substract the lesser Latitude out of the greater, so shall you find the difference; which difference, if you multiply by 60, the product will be the number of miles; and if to the whole degrees of difference there be annexed any minutes, then you must add to the product for every minute a mile.

But if one of the two places have North Latitude, and the other South Latitude, then you shall find their difference by Addition only, and not by Substraction.

The distan­ces of two places ha­ving diffe­rent Longi­tudes, and East and West Lati­tude.Now if you would find the distance of two places, differing only in Longitude, both places having either East or West Latitude; then substract the lesser out of the greater, so shall you have the true difference, which difference you must multiply by the number of miles belonging to their Latitude, which commonly is found on the North-West side of the Maps, or by the Ta­ble of miles answerable, of one degree of every Latitude, and the product thereof will be the number of miles; whereby the one place is distant from the other; but if one place have East Longitude, and the other West Longitude, then you must find the difference as well by Ad­dition as by Substraction.

To conclude this point, I conceive it not much material to my purpose further to insist here­upon; for the diligent and ingenious will easily hereby comprehend the benefit that may redound to him by a general inspection in this Art, referring what is here by me willingly omitted to his own private search and study, and to such Authors as have learnedly written of this Sub­ject more at large; and therefore from the universal knowledge of Maps that pointeth out the General Divisions of the World, I will come to the Particulars comprised therein, and view the Subdivisions thereof, as Potency, Might and Sovereignty have prescribed Rules thereunto.

This World then, consisting as I noted before of four Principal Parts, and every Part con­sisting of several Empires Kingdoms and Provinces in which many Commodities both natural and artificial are found fit for Commerce, and Traffick, and also wherein are noted to be divers eminent Cities and Towns of great concourse, of Shipping, Merchants and Trade, which Trade is maintained and driven by the said Commodities and Wares, and by the natural inclination of Mankind to in [...]ich themselves by Invention, and Time, hath devised the Art of Merchandizing, and by the means of Weights, Measures, Coins, Exchanges and Accompt­keeping, have drawn the same to certain Heads and Principals, which in this MAP OF COMMERCE I shall endeavour to demonstrate: But before I fall to Particulars, it is requisite I should first say somewhat of the same in general.

CHAP. II. Of the Art of Merchandizing, and the General Parts thereof.

Merchandi­zing accoun­ted an Art. MERCHANDIZING (truly considered in it self, and rightly practised) may well be said to be an Art or Science invented by ingenious Mankind, for the publick good, commodity and welfare of all Common-wealths; for thereby some places and Kingdoms are supplied and furnished with those necessary things, whereof Nature her self hath proved deficient in, and which in some other places or Kingdoms hath abandoned, tending either to the need, ornament, or commodity of humane life, and is performed by exporting the super­fluities, that are found in the one, to furnish the defects and wants that are found in the other: and the Arts-men that are seen thus to practise and exercise the same, and which do thus trans­port these things from one place to another, are generally known to us and commonly termed by the name of Merchants, and the things themselves wherewith they Negotiate and Traffick are termed Merchandizes or Commodities.

Merchandi­zing what. Merchandizing then of it self, in effect, is nothing else but a Commutation, Bargaining, Con­tracting or Exchanging of one man with another, and by giving by one, so much of one thing or Commodity, to have of the other, so much and the like value, of some one other differing Commodity else; and the [...] themselves subject to this Commutation, or Exchanging, are [Page 7]principally observed in all places to be two; The materi­als of Mer­chandizing, are Commo­dities and Moneys.first Wares or Goods, and secondly Moneys or Coyn; which two are usually observed to be contracted and bargained for, in three several di­stinct manners.

Commutati­ons distin­guished into three man­ners or kindsThe first is Goods for Goods, and this is termed Bartering. The second is Goods for Money, and this is termed Bargaining; and the third is Money for Money, and this is properly amongst Merchants, (in these days) termed Exchanging: from whence it proceedeth, and may be concluded, that all merchantile affairs and commerce-like Negotiations may be distinguished in­to three kinds or sorts, that is, into Bartering, commonly called Trucking; Bargaining, com­monly called buying and selling; and into returning of Moneys from one place to another by Bills, commonly called Exchanging.

The first of these was taught to Mankind by necessity, who to provide himself of things that were needful, gave in lieu and in truck thereof and for the same, the things whereof he had store and plenty: The second kind was found out and invented to facilitate the first; and the third and last to facilitate the second.

Bartering.In the times of old amongst us, and yet in these days in many places of America, Asia and Africa: the first manner of Bartering was and is yet in use and practised, where though Gold and Silver and Brass was not known nor accounted as a stamped Coin, yet it was then both here, and is still here held in greater estimation than was any other commodity or mettal; the which Homer inferreth in his relation of the Trojan War, where he mentioneth that Achilles his Golden Armour was valued in barter at one hundred Oxen, and that the Brass Armour of Diomedes was valued in barter but at nine: But Man in process of time, finding it too too difficult a thing, and too too troublesome a business, to carry about him, all things thus bar­ter'd and trucked from one place to another, chose out one singular thing, which as a common standard or measure, should countervail and be in Value as all other things, and which should be received and accounted of in payment, satisfaction, and equivalency to all others; and the things thus chosen and estimated, was Gold, Silver and Brass, the most excellent of Metals, which being then and since, by the Authority of princes, divided into great and small pieces, and into several and distinct parts and denominations, was stamped and coined with several characters, to denote thereby the true weight and value of the same; the which was first done by Servius in Rome of Brass, whereon was imprinted the Image of Sheep and Oxen, betoken­ing the wealth and riches of those days, as Moneys do now with us; and because that ten of those pieces was then called a Denier, therefore it is that universally all such Moneys are still called by the Latines Denarii: this being then the original of Moneys, which afterward came to be coined both of Silver, and Gold; as I shall more at large have occasion to demonstrate in the Chapter of Moneys, in this following Treatise.

Bargaining.This first sort of Merchandizing or Commerce then, as I said before; termed Bartering or Trucking, of one Commodity for another, begat consequently by the means of Moneys the second manner of Negotiation, which is buying and selling, or bargaining; for all Merchants that would transport Commodities from one Country or place to another, to effect the same, need­ed either other Commodities, wherewith to barter. and so to procure them, or Money, and so to buy them; and therefore to facilitate Merchandizing, and to take away the incommodity and danger of the carriage of Moneys, about a man, or from place to place, a mean was invented to have the same in what Country a man pleased, without trouble or danger of the transport, carriages or rigor thereof; Exchangingand this was found to be best performed by Exchange, which is the third sort of Commutation; the which is noted to be no other than the giving of so much Moneys in one place to one, who should cause it to be again repaid in another place by another for him; as for example, Edward hath here in London one thousand pounds, and desireth to re­mit the same, or have it in the hands of Joseph, who resideth in Venice; and Lodowick hath one thousand pounds in Venice, in the custody and hands of Thomas, which he would get, receive, and recover out and have them here: it happeneth that Edward meeteth with Lodo­wick, to whom he delivereth and payeth the said one thousand pounds; and thereupon Lodowick writeth to Thomas, that he pay the said thousand pounds to Joseph, and thus each party comes to be both satisfied and accommodated; by which it may be discerned, that in all Exchanges, there is concluded two payments, two places, and four distinct persons; as he who payeth in the one place, and he who receiveth in the other; and he who receiveth in the one place, and he who payeth in the other; and from hence it consequently followeth, that no man can remit except there be another to draw; nor no man can in the second place receive, except there be another authorized to pay,

Exchanges drawn into a profitable Art, and the reasons thereof.In this manner then came in use the original of Exchanges, purposely invented to accommo­date Trade and Commerce, the which at first was practised without either benefit or loss, or any other consideration; and to render again the self-same sum and parcel as was received: but other consideration; and to render again the self-same sum and parcel as was received: but in process of time it came to be considered, that the giver or deliverer of the Money came both to lose a certain space in time ere the same was repaid, and did also run a certrin risgo in the [Page 8]payment thereof, which the receiver or drawer enjoyed, and profited by; and therefore it was held reasonable that the deliverer should have some fruit and benefit, in requital and satisfaction thereof, which afterward occasioned that the second payment came to be somewhat greater than the former; and that in consideration thereof there should be restored, more than was received: The endeavour of this gain then hath converted Exchanges since into an Art or Myste­ry; from whence it proceedeth, that many are found at this day to remit and deliver Moneys, to the intent, to have the same returned with benefit, and not for a need or necessity to have it more in one place than in another; and many again are found to be takers and drawers, not with intent to withdraw or recover their Money, from another person, or place; but to serve themselves and their occasions with that of others, for a certain time, paying and allowing for the same, that consideration and interest as is agreed upon, and covenanted between them; which really and in effect is nothing else but a certain kind of permitted Usury, and therefore by some accounted as a thing unlawful, though by many, and by the common and received pra­ctice of the World, it is upheld and maintained with many solid reasons and substantial argu­ments; besides which, it is considerable, and peradventure it may well be granted, that if it were not that there is by this Art and Mystery, a gain and profit made thereof, very few Exchanges would present; because that draughts and remittances would in this nature but seldom happen, that would or might any way be available to Traffick and Commerce, and less benefit would consequently redound to the publick and universal Commerce of Kingdoms: and therefore though the intention of particular Exchanges, be not always found good herein, yet the general good effect which it produceth, and that proceedeth therefrom, is in it self and in the true use and custom thereof both approved and laudable.

Things con­siderable in Bartering.Now in the first sort of Commutation, which I term Bartering, many things do happen con­siderable and necessary in the Art of Merchandizing; the first is the knowledge as well in the Commodity, thus to be delivered, as in the Commodity so to be received: next a knowledge in respect of the value and present request and estimation of both; then in respect of the quality, whether it be lasting and durable, or impairing or perishable; and lastly in respect of the property, whether it be of it self natural and growing, or Artificial, and made by the hand and industry of man; and lastly in respect of the quantity, whether plentiful in abundance, or scarce and in few hands.

Things con­siderable in Bargaining.In the second sort of Commutation, which I term Bargaining, or buying and selling, are likewise besides the abovementioned, these particulars to be well known and considered; first a knowledge how the Commodity is either bought or sold, as either by weight, as are pon­derous Commodities, or as by Concave or long measures, as are Commodities of length, or Commodities solid or liquid; the knowledge of which weights and measures, is in like manner perfectly to be known, and really to be understood; and then the fineness, goodness and cur­rent valuation of the Money of the place, is also to be known, and perfectly and rightly to be found out and be distinguished, that the bargain may appear to be made the more justly, equally, and conscionably between both parties; and for the needful circumstances ob­served in bargaining, these four things are considerable, as having necessary dependancies upon.

Principally four. First, A Merchant must know what to bargain for, and under this the knowledge of the Commodity it self is comprehended. Secondly, How to bargain, and under this the knowledge of the weights and measures in the general is comprised. Thirdly, When to bargain, and un­der this the fit and proper seasons of bargaining are generally included. Fourthly, With whom to bargain, and under this point is comprehended, the person and party interessed, that re­quires the accomplishment or credit in the bargain.

Things con­siderable in ExchangingNow in the third sort of Commutation, which is here termed Exchanging, the things neces­sary to be known and considerable by the said Art of Merchandizing are these: First, A know­ledge of the fineness, goodness and current value of the Princes Coin, both where the party Remitter abideth, and whither the said Moneys are remitted; then a knowledge of the current rate of the Exchanging of the Par or Value for Value, both according to the Standard of the Country, and according to the valuation of the current Coin there passable; then of the Usance of the place; and lastly and principally, to avoid all prejudice and loss, a knowledge is to be had of the party who is the Drawer and Receiver of the same; and in default made of current satisfaction and payment accordingly, knowledge is to be had of the due and true manner and form of making of all legal intimations, protests, and other such needful in­struments, circumstances and observations as are requisite thereto, according to the strict and solemn Rules required in a Bill of Exchange, which in its due place I shall more at large declare.

Now forasmuch as many of these afore-mentioned points may as well be included with­in the mystery of some subordinate Tradesmen, as comprehended within the bounds of the Art of Merchandizing; I shall not need to insist farther thereupon, only here insert some [Page 9]other principal parts and points more aptly comprised within the particular limits of this Science, which in brief I will only nominate, as fitly serving for an Induction to this present MAPOF COMMERCE, and as being the proper Instruments, wherewith also this Art of Mer­chandizing is practised.

I have noted before, that Merchandizing principally consisteth of Adventures made abroad into several Regions, and that for the most part Merchants are found to traffick and negotiate into divers parts and Countries of the World by the help and benefit of the Seas and Navigation; and to have to that end their Factors, Servants and Agents resident in foreign parts to perform those their Merchantile Occasions, and that Ships and Vessels of all burthens are daily seen to be by them so imployed and set on work through all the parts of the habitable World; therefore the next point needful their knowledge, and comprised in the Art of Merchandizing, I may intitle under the name of Shipping; which properly consisting of sundry portins may be fitly distinguished within the duties of four several distinct persons.

First duty to build, be­longing to the Ship­wright.The first Person is represented in the building of a Ship, wherein the whole materials are to be considered; next the Art of the framing, forming, and making thereof, is to be ob­served, the due rules of length breadth, depth, stowage, offence, defence and commodious­ness in general is to be noted, with all other circumstances thereunto appertaining: and this I hold to be the proper duty of the Ship-wright, and the knowledge consequently not unpro­per to the Merchant, and fitly comprehended within the Art of Merchandizing.

Second duty to furnish and set out, belonging to the Ow­ners.The second is represented in the setting forth of this Ship, wherein her tackle, apparel, victu­al and munition, and all her needful and dependent furniture is to be considered, her pro­vision and store is to be observed: and this I hold to be the proper duty of the Owners and letters out of Ships to fraight, and the knowledge most proper for the Merchant, and com­prehended also in the Art of Merchandizing.

Third duty to sail the Ship, be­longing to the Pilot or Master.The third is represented in the sailing of this Ship, wherein the Art of Navigation is gene­rally to be considered, with all circumstances thereunto of right appertaining, which I hold to be the duty of the Master and Pilot; and how far this knowledge may be necessary to the Merchant, I have mentioned in a Book intituled, The Factors Avizo, which I may, if occasion serve, publish to the use and benefit of Merchants and Factors that frequent the Seas, and take pleasure therein.

Fourth du­ty of im­ploying this Ship, be­longing to the Mer­chant.The last is represented in the imployment of this Ship, wherein is considerable these six things. First, The lading of the Goods aboard, by which this Ship comes to be imployed, which must be done in fair and dry weather, and at fit seasons: Secondly, The stowage thereof aboard, which must be done without prejudice or hurt of one Commodity to another, by building of Bulk heads, and providing of Desnege, and the like, whereon the said Goods must bear or lie upon: Thirdly, In truly marking the said Goods, that it may evidently appear who is the right Owner and Proprietor thereof: Fourthly, In really paying and truly discharging all Cu­stoms, Duties and Charges thereupon, that neither the Ship nor Goods may be subject to loss, confiscation or prejudice thereby: Fifthly, In making assurance thereon, that the imployer preventing losses may not indanger his whole Adventure: And Sixthly and lastly, In a general knowledge of all the Sea-Laws comprised either in the Roll of Oleron or Consolato of Barcelona, that all Controversies between the Merchant and Mariner may be avoided; that he may thereby the better right himself, and do also that which is right to all others; and this I hold to be the proper duty of the Merchant and his Factor.

A Merchant is to know the form of a Bill of Ex­change.In order to this I may here nominate such other things as are needful to his knowledge, and which have a necessary dependence upon the Art of Merchandizing, as next to know all manner of specialities proper to his Place and Calling. And first the manner, force, and virtue of a Bill of Exchange, the terms, and proper method thereof, with all manner of Ob­servations required thereto by the solemn, and strict rules of the proceedings commonly used therein.

Secondly, Of all man­ner of Pro­tests and In­timations.Secondly, The making of all Intimations, and Protests, in all cases whatsoever incident to this Art.

Thirdly, Of Charter­parties.Thirdly, The manner and making of all Charter-parties for the fraightment of Ships; wherein all conditions and their circumstances must be truly and at large set down and declared, as the time when the covenanted Ship is to depart, the Ports where she is to unlade, the days agreed upon for her unlading, the sum agreed upon for fraight, and all other the par­ticutar conditions accorded upon, the better to avoid all inconveniences and contentions in Law that may happen thereupon.

Fourthly. Of Bills of Lading.Fourthly, The manner of making of Bills of Lading, wherein the Goods laden, and the condition thereof is to be truly set down: also the Ship wherein the same is put, and the Master or Pilots name and who taketh the charge thereof; the place of unlading the said Goods, and lastly, the fraight to be paid for the same, when delivered according to conditions specified.

[Page 10] Fifthly, of Policies of Assurances.Fifthly, The manner of making of Policies of Assurances; wherein the Goods assured are to be nominated, the Ship upon which the same is laden, and the Master thereof declared, the Dangers and Adventure assured to be specified, the places whence and whither bound noted, the Rate or Premio agreed upon observed; and lastly, the Persons or Parties Assurers sub­scribed, &c.

Sixthly, of Bills of Debt, and Obligatory.Sixthly, The manner of making of all manner of Specialities and Bills of Debt, either as they are simply in use amongst us in England, or obligatory, as also to know the force and strength thereof in Law, both here and beyond the Seas, with Transportations thereof, as is used in many foreign Countries; wherein is to be set down the name and profession of the party debtor, the sum owing thereby, to whom the same is due, and the time when the same is payable, and the place where, and in Bills obligatory, the penalty for non-payment accor­dingly.

Seventhly, of an Ac­quittance.Seventhly, When the same is discharged, the form and manner of an Acquittance and gene­ral release in full discharge for the payment thereof.

Eighthly, of a Letter of Attorney.Eighthly, The manner of drawing a Letter of Attorney or Procuration, with the strength thereof both here and beyond the Seas: wherein is to be mentioned the power and autho­rity given, the party that giveth the same, and the party who receiveth it, and the scope, end and determination thereof; Ninthly, in Accompt-keeping.and lastly, to conclude these necessary appurtenances and dependences upon the Art of Merchandizing, there must be added a right and perfect Skill in Accompt-keeping, that thereby all his daily Affairs, his Adventures, Shipping, Sales, Buyings, Payments and Receipts, &c. may orderly and truly be manifested, which is so far forth to be learned and known, that his Estate, Gains and Losses, and all passages that are else needful hap­pening in the course of his Negotiations, Merchandizing or Commerce may appear, and which may thereby be either yearly, or oftner reduced into a ballance, to his own contentment, and to the commodity of his Estate and daily Traffick.

Tenthly, of Arithme­tick.And as a Hand-maid or Usher to this Art of Accompting, he must, to finish and make up these helps and furtherances, have the assistance of the Art of Numbring or Arithmetick, in which whosoever is ignorant may not challenge to himself the Title of a Merchant, nor be said to have any Judgment in the Art of Merchandizing, nor hardly deserve the attribute of a rational man.

These are now the principal parts of the Art of Merchandizing, and the Basis whereupon the same is observed to have its foundation, as it is seen, practised, and exercised by all Merchants in general in these our days throughout the habitable World, the most part whereof I have more particularly handled in the following succinct Chapters, and some others I have willingly omitted, as being such as are so inherent to the Art it self, that every knowing Merchant must not be ignorant therein, having in all other respects endeavoured to make this MAP OF COMMERCE so perfect, absolute and compleat, that it may stand the Mer­chant (especially the Learner) in stead, both at home and abroad beyond the Seas, and serve him as a Guide and Tutor to direct and instruct him in all the parts of the Art of Merchandizing.

And having thus run over the ground of this Art it self in the general, I will in the next place begin with the Cities and Towns, where at this day it is found, that for the most part this Art of Merthandizing is seen to be practised and used.

CHAP. III. Of Cities and Towns of Trade in general, mentioned in this MAP OF COMMERCE.

Cities and Towns emi­nent in Trade, only mentioned in this MapMY purpose is not here to shew the Antiquity of Cities and Towns, according to their first original, nor the manners and custom used in their first foundation; neither yet speak of the divers kinds thereof, as at this day they are in themselves observed to be: But my intention is in this following Map of Trade, (having briefly shewed the common division of the four parts of the World,) to nominate and quote out the chief and principal thereof, as they are known to be to Merchants, and as they are found the most eminent and absolute in the Trade of Merchandizing; and therewith distinguish the diversities that are observed to be therein.

Six parts re­quired in a compleat City.An absolute and compleat City or Town, as some learned have set down and expressed, cannot subsist of it self without six principal parts and helps, for the supportation thereof; and without which no City or Town can properly be said to be, or to have a being; First, It must have Victuals to feed and nourish it; and this is the proper task and duty of the Hus­bandman and Shepherd. Secondly, It must have Arms and Armour to defend it, and offend its Enemies; and this is the proper task and duty of the Souldier. Thirdly, It must have [Page 11]Wealth and Riches, as sinews for its imployment, in private and publick affairs; and this is the proper task and duty of the rich and eminent Inhabitants of this City. Fourthly, It must have Justice for Criminal and Civil Causes, to punish the bad, and reward the good; and this is the proper task and duty of Counsellors and Senators of State. Fifthly, It must have Reli­gion and the Worship of GOD duly and reverently performed in it; and this is the pro­per task and duty of the Priesthood: And Sixthly, To make it a compleat, able, and absolute City, it must have Trade and Arts, practised therein, and this is the proper task and duty of the Merchant and Artificer that inhabit it. Now, though many Cities are seen sometimes defective in some of these parts, and are not so well furnished as this rule and the exactness of a compleat City requireth; yet it is daily manifested to the judicious and learned in Policies of State, and Government of Common-wealths, that Merchants, and such as exercise the Trade of Merchandizing in Cities, do supply by their endeavours and abilities by Traffick, most of those other parts and helps here before specified; and which are or may be found deficient and wanting therein. The Mer­chants purse and person supplies ma­ny defects in a City of Trade.For setting aside the Worship and Service of God, which is only fit and proper to Divines and Church-men, the person and purse of the Merchant supplies in a fair measure all the other parts before-mentioned; for first, the Merchants Navigation, and Traffick, is seen to supply the City with Corn, Grain, Cloth, &c. and all manner of Pro­vision, both for back and belly, delight and ornament, tending either to pleasure or need; and this way he performs the part of the Husbandman and Shepherd; His Traffick is seen to supply the City with Arms, Armour, and all manner of Ammunition, either offensive or de­fensive; and thus far he performs the part of Souldier: His Traffick likewise is seen to bring Riches into the common Purse by Customs, Imposts, and such Duties; and thereby may be said to perform the part of the wealthy and most eminent thereof. He is seen by his wisdom, travel, and experience abroad, to be able oftentimes to sit at the Stern of the Cities Government, punish­ing the vicious, rewarding the virtuous; and herein he performs the part of a Senator and Counsellor: neither yet is he wanting in many other particulars, to perform the duty of a good Patriot and Citizen, (not comprized within any of these aforesaid limits;) for his Traffick is seen to improve the Countries Commodities, to set the Poor and Needy on work, to invent new Fabricks, Stuffs, and the like; to plant foreign Colonies, to setle Peace and Amity amongst Princes, to build warlike Ships, to train up Seamen; and to make the City and place of his abode famous and eminent by sundry other means, which I could exemplifie if need were in this place, and which at present I willingly omit.

Now then, if the Merchant and the Art of Merchandizing be so excellent, and consequent­ly necessary in a City, and bringeth with it so many benefits and commodities: how happy then is that City, where many notable and well-govern'd Merchants are found to reside, and where their care of their own profit is so necessarily interwoven with the care of the Common­wealth's, and its good, that to themselves and to their Country, their labours and adventures do bring in thus mutually, not only a commodity, but also an honour: but to the matter; All Cities and Towns are not found in themselves proper for Commerce and Traffick, nor yet all of them fit residences for Merchants; What Cities are found fit for Trade and Com­merce.therefore it is seen by experience, that Trade hath settled it self principally in two sorts of Cities and Towns; and in such, first the Inhabitants by Inclination, and then Foreigners and Strangers by Conversation, are observed and noted to have planted themselves, and established a Trade therein.

Two sorts of Cities of Traffick. Traffick then residing and abiding principally in two several sorts of Cities and Towns, by daily observation are found to be such as these; the first is the Maritime, and these are they that have their situation on the Sea-Shore or Coast, or upon navigable Rivers and Streams; and the second are they that have their situation within some Continent, and may be called Land-Towns and Cities, distant both from Sea and River. And though that in both these, Trade and Commerce is observable to be settled and driven; yet the manner and common form of this Trade is found to differ much, as being both of them proper to two several sorts of Traffick and Negociation.

Sea-Towns of Trade, what.The Trade observed then to be driven in Sea-Towns or Cities, seated on Navigable Rivers, is noted to subsist principally by Navigation, and by the easie Transportation of Merchandize by that commodiousness, from one place to another; which is indeed the most proper and cu­stomary way, whereby Traffick is in these days seen to be maintained and preserved; for in many places thus situated, it is noted that eminent Merchants do reside, who by reason of this Neighbourhood of the Sea, and consequently of Navigation, do hold a correspondency and Trade from one fit place to another, over all the known parts of the habitable World, Importing the Commodities of all other Countries, and Exporting the native Commodities of the place it self; and of this sort is Masilia, Amsterdam, Genoa, Venetia, Sevil, Lis­bon, London, and many others, &c. Land. Towns of Trade, what.But the Trade observed to be driven in Inland Towns and Cities, subsists by carriage of Commodities by Land, which in some places is done by Carts, in some by Camels, Caravans, Mules, Horses, &c. as is at this day seen practised in [Page 12]many great Cities of the World; as at Aleppo in Turkey, at Spahan in Persia, at Agra in the Mogul Country, and such other, who enjoy neither the benefit of Rivers, nor yet the com­modity of the Sea it self by many miles distance; yet therein are oftentimes found residing many Merchants of great eminency, and an ample Trade is discerned therein, as may be seen in this following Tract. And sometimes to add some furtherance to this their want, some of these have a Sea-Port or Haven, as the nearest whereto Ships from other parts do come in, and do there both land and relade as occasion requireth; in which nature is Alexandria to Aleppo, Combrone to Spahan, and Sindy to Agra.

Towns of Trade in Manual Arts and Fabricks.Besides which, I might here add a third sort of Cities, where yet Trade is noted to be settled, differing from both the former, and which cannot be comprised within either of the limits; and these are such as subsist by some excellent or curious Manual Arts or Fa­bricks, as is Norimberg and others in Germany, Rouen in Normandy, Florence in Italy, and Norwich in England, and some others; whose Trade subsists by the benefit of Nature, pro­ducing of it self, special or needful Commodities for Traffick, as doth Burdeaux by Gascoin Wines, Zant by Corrants, Smyrna by Cottons, Gilan in Persia by raw Silk, Ivisa by Salt, and the like: and where these are joined by situation proper for Traffick to the former, they are found to be far more absolute, eminent and compleat, as shall be discerned also in this following Tract.

Cities of Trade men­tioned in the Map of Commerce.These are then the Cities and Towns which generally in this Map I handle, relating as near as my observation and reading will permit me, the Commodities that the place doth naturally afford for Merchandize, and the Commodities the same is noted properly to vent; together with the time when the same is either sent out or brought in, the quantity, how much; with all other such circumstances as are thereunto belonging.

Five places in a City depending upon Trade.Moreover it is to be noted, that in all Cities and Towns of Traffick, there are always found five particular places, that only have a being and dependency upon the Trade thereof.

The Burse, or Exchange.The first place is it where Merchants and Tradesmen do assemble and meet at certain hours, and limited times of the day, to confer and treat together, concerning Merchandizing, Ship­ping, Buying or Selling, and the like; as is seen to be the Royal Exchange of LONDON, the Burse in Antwerp, the Piazze in Venetia, and the like in other places.

The Custom-house.The second place is it where the Princes Customs, and Duties upon all Wares, either Import­ed or Exported by way of Merchandize is seen to be paid and collected, where Officers are appointed to attend the same; and where all Writs, as Cockets, Bills of Entry, Cetificates, and the like, are granted, both to load and land Goods, either going out or coming in, and these are called by several names, as in most places Custom-houses, Dattio, Commercios, and the like.

Magazines for Com­modities.The third place is it where Merchants do keep their Goods and Wares in, where Weighers, Porters, Carmen, and Labourers, do hourly attend to be set on work; where Brokers and Contracters are daily imployed in making of Bargains, shewing of Wares, transporting of Bills of Debt, and such like, as is seen in the Besistons and Basars in Turkey, Alfondoces in Barbary, Pack houses in the Netherlands; and as was accustomed to be done in the Stillard in London.

Kings-Beam.The next place is it where the Publick Beam is set up, by the Authority of the Magistrate, to weigh all ponderous Commodities bought or sold, to decide Differences and Controversies arising by Weights and Weighing, and where a sworn Weigher, with labourers, at all hours attendeth upon Merchants occasions, and who by his place is to keep a Register of all Com­modities weighed, to serve if need shall so require; and in this nature is the Weight- house cal­led The Kings-Beam in London, the Domme at Amsterdam, the Vicont in Rouen, the Romano in Marsilia, and such like in other places of Trade.

Met-house.The next and last place is it where the Publick Measures, both of length, of dry, and of liquid Commodities, in every City are kept and set up by the Authority of the Magistrate, to measure all measurable Commodities bought or sold; to decide all Differences and Contro­versies arising thereabouts; and where a sworn Measurer is to give attendance with other ne­cessary helpers at all hours to dispatch Merchants occasions, of which he is to keep a Register to serve in time of need, as was seen of old to be the Standard of Cheap in London, and as is found the like in other places.

And thus much shall serve to have said of Cities and Towns in general, of Trade, and of the principal places found therein, which have a dependence thereupon; which few Cities in the World, of Traffick do want, or are found to be defective in.

CHAP. IV. Of Customs, Impositions, and other Duties in general, paid by Merchants upon Commodities in all Cities of Trade.

Customs payable to Princes. TRADE in it self, hath ever been found to be, not only beneficial to the City and Coun­try where the same is exercised and preserved, but also to the Princes and Sovereigns who command the same; and though the commodities and benefits that it brings with it be many and great, yet the principal are such as accruing to the Princes Coffers, come to them by the payments of certain Customs, Imposts, and Duties, that are by them imposed upon all Commo­dities and Wares, which by the way of Merchandize are either Imported out, or Exported in­to their Dominions; and for the better raising and collecting of which, there is seated as is before remembred, by the said Princes and their Authority in every such City and Town (where any Trade and concourse of Merchants is found to be) certain publick Houses, Custom­houses.as Offices by the name of Custom-houses, where these Duties are collected, and where the Traders and Mer­chants do accordingly pay and satisfie the same.

Customs not always alike in all places.The Duty then of Custom, though in all Countries it be generally paid, yet it is not always found to be paid alike in all places, for it is sometimes found to be more, and sometimes less; and oft-times in some Countries it is paid according to the will of the Prince who imposeth the same, as being partly a Prerogative inherent to their Scepters, and partly as they are absolute Commanders in those Cities, Ports and Havens where this Traffick is so exercis'd, Custom due upon all Commodi­ties.and is found to be payable, as I said before, upon all manner of Commodities used by way of Merchandize, either Imported or Exported out or into their Dominions, Coun­tries and Cities.

The origi­nal of Cu­stoms.This Duty then thus called Custom, is conceived by some to have its first Original from a safeguard given by those Princes at Sea, to their Subjects and Merchants from all Rovers, Pi­rats and Enemies, and a Protection for free trading from all such dangers from one Port or City of Trade to another: but we see that in these days the payment of the Duty is still conti­nued, and is daily paid by all Merchants; but the first institution and ground thereof (if so it was) is by many Princes either totally omitted, or at least- wise forgotten, and therefore it may now be more properly called a Custom than heretofore, and the places where the same is paid and collected, called thence Custom-houses.

The Mer­chant must learn what the Customs are, and du­ly pay them.The Merchant then that intendeth to Negociate and Traffick into any City or Kingdom (seeing there is a necessity in the payment and discharge thereof) ought first diligently and carefully learn and observe the sum and quantity payable upon all Commodities whatsoever; and then truly and honestly satisfie the same according to the Ordinances and Proceedings used respectively in those Countries, partly to avoid the danger of the loss of the Commo­dity (the non-payment being in many places the forfeiture) and partly the better thereby to make his Calculation either to buy or sell or profit, and that before he make Entry of any Goods in the said Custom- houses or Office (thus appointed for the collecting of this Duty) he take notice what the true and right custom in it self is; Book of Rates.to further which knowledge, it is often seen that a settled Rate by Book, or particular Teriffe, either in Print or Writing, may easily in every such City of Trade be had and obtained: But if (as it is sometimes seen) in some places that the same cannot be had, then the Trader must learn in this case from others what the Duty and Custom of the place is; wherein much care and circumspection is to be used; for the fraud and poling deceit, that is practised in sundry Custom-houses by many Officers where no such Books are publick, is excessive, when either they collect the same to the immediate use of the Prince, or when they collect the same to their own use, being let out to farm by contract and yearly Rent unto them by his Authority; many Merchants being deceived by their devi­ces and slights, many Under-Officers and new Offices being daily hatched up and maintained by the chief Customers and Farmers, not only to the detriment of Merchants and of all Trade in particular, but also to the prejudice of the Sovereign, and all Traffick and Commerce in the general.

Custom dif­fers in ma­ny respects.These Customs then, as I said before, are noted not to be paid in all Countries alike, for they are found to differ in divers regards; the principal whereof I have observed to be these:

In regard of place. First, They are found to differ in regard of Places and Kingdoms, as a far greater Custom is paid in Spain, and generally throughout the King of Spain's Dominions, than in France, Italy, Turkie, and in some other places.

In regard of Cities. Secondly, Some difference is also found in regard of times, as in priviledged Towns, enjoy­ing free Fairs, Marts and Markets, as is seen observed by custom and long use in Rouen, Beau­cair, Franckford, Messina, and other places where the Customs are then, and at that time little or else nothing, or far less than at all other times of the year besides.

[Page 14] In regard of time. Thirdly, Somewhat again in respect of Cities, enjoying a more peculiar priviledge and con­tinued freedom in Trade in sundry Kingdoms, where little or no Custom is paid upon any Com­modity whatsoever, either during a year after the Importing of the Goods, or for certain limited time or months; as it is seen in Legorn, Marsilia, and in many other Free Cities and Hanse-Towns, &c.

In regard of Commo­dities. Fourthly, Somewhat again in regard of Commodities, as is seen in England, and many other places elsewhere, where some Commodities are higher rated in the Custom than other some; some paying after the rate of 5 per cent. some 10, some 15, and some 20 per cent. and some yet more, and some less.

In regard of Weight. Fifthly, Somewhat again in respect of the Weight, as is seen in Rouen by the Vicont, in Lions by the King's Beam, in Stockholm by the Merchants weight; and so in other places where there is used a large weight in favour of the Merchants to pay their Custom by, and another lesser to buy and sell withal.

Strictness for not pay­ing of Cu­stoms.All these things and many others, as necessary to this Commerce, must be truly learned; for ignorance herein is not pardonable, and is ever a prejudice to him that is found to exercise Trade; for the rigour and strictness practised in sundry Countries herein against Merchants is extream, whereas these Customs are not duly and truly to the utmost satisfied and paid.

In Russia, Denmark, Sweden.As the first in Russia, Denmark and Sweden, the Law is, That if a Merchant do not declare all his Goods in the Custom-house which he either Importeth or Exporteth, but concealeth some part thereof; all the rest of that Commodity being of the same kind, are forfeited to the Prince without favour or redemption.

In Spain's Dominions.In Spain, and generally throughout all the King of Spain's Dominions, the Commodities concealed are only forfeited, unless they be prohibited, or as they term it, Contrabanda Goods, and then all is lost.

In England, Scotland and Ireland.In England, Scotland and Ireland the like; for there the Goods concealed are only forfeited; but yet they may be had again upon Composition, for the Officer that maketh the seisure hath power by a License sued forth to compound for the one half, which is his part: and if no in­tention to defraud the King appear in the fact, the Barons of the Exehequer will deal favour­ably with the Merchant for the other half, which is the King's; and if a Merchant cannot for want of a Factory make a direct or perfect Entry, he may declare his Goods in the Custom-house, at sight; and taking up the same, it may be either weighed or measured, opened and perused by an Officer, and then afterward the Custom may be satisfied accordingly without further danger.

And if the Merchant would again ship out those Goods so brought in by him, he may do it by Certificate free of Custom for 13 months, and have the Impost thereof returned to him again provided the property hath not been during that time altered.

There is also by way of Tares granted to the Merchant in the Custom-house 5 per Cent. upon all Commodities, either weighed or measured, and allowances upon Wines and Oyls for leakage, and upon Clothes, Kersies, and such like, one in ten for wrappers, with many other limited Ob­servations, which are found published in His Majesties Declaration, before the printed Book of Rates for Customs in England, &c.

In Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands.In France, Germany, and many places of Italy, and in the Low Countries, the Goods concealed are only forfeited; but the same may be afterwards compounded for, wherein the circumstan­ces will in some places be considered, and the manner how the Error grew, and whether it appear to be done with a set purpose or not.

In Constanti­nople, Smyr­na.In Constantinople, Smyrna, and many places of Turkie, the Goods concealed are not at all forfeited, but are to pay double the imposed Custom if taken, and then to be again re­stored.

I have noted, that the Rates of the Customs are found to alter in sundry Countries, as in Spain and Portugal is paid upon divers Goods 10 per cent. upon some 20 and 25 per cent. In Turkie is paid by the English only 3 per cent. but by all other Christian Nations 5 per cent. and the same is not there paid nor satisfied in Money, as in other Countries but in species and in kind, except compounded for before-hand, and so by a value reduced into Moneys: so also it is in some Countries more, and in some less, sometimes settled upon the hundred in value, and sometimes upon the piece; and in China and some places of India it is noted, that in favour of this Duty the Tessel and Ship is measured in length, and breadth, and depth; and so by a certain rule and sum the Custom is levied accordingly, upon all sorts of Goods aboard her without di­stinction alike in bulk.

Impositions upon Goods.Besides this Duty of Custom paid in most Cities by Merchants, as I have shewed, there is ano­ther Duty like to this, which is called by the name of Imposition, because the same is imposed upon some certain and particular Commodities, and not in general (as Customs are) upon all; the which also is not alike rated upon all Wares: for though they be found now to be much of [Page 15]the same nature as Customs are, yet originally they are conceived to be nothing but Custom strain­ed beyond a fair proportion, and are imposed oftentimes more for the inriching of some private Courtier, than for the profit or benefit of the Sovereign, and which in themselves are found to be very heavy, excessive and burthensome upon some particular Commodities; and there­fore, as there is a necessity in the payment thereof, so is there likewise a necessity that the same be truly learned and known, and also the Commodity upon which the same is so imposed; lest otherwise the Trader make a short reckoning in his accounts, and find this Impost to deceive him of his expected and hoped for gain.

Fees to Offi­cers to be paid and known.To conclude, Neither are these Duties thus to be only learned, and duly satisfied according to the Customs and usance of every City and Country, but also all such appurtenances as belong thereunto, in the passing of all Goods in the said Offices and Custom-houses, as in Bills of Entries, Cockets, Certificates, passing of Bonds, and all Fees thereunto appertaining and thereupon de­pending, as to Waiters, Searchers, Clerks, Visitors, and such like, be also known and satisfied, the better to avoid the dangers and Inconveniences that may happen by the default thereof to the Goods whereupon the same is liable.

These Customs then and Impositions thus varying by time, places and circumstances, and im­posed, altered and changed oftentimes at the will of the Prince, are not by the industry of any one hand to be punctually known in all places; therefore it sufficeth me to have given here these General Rules and Observations, conducing both to the knowledge and the necessity of the discharge and payment thereof, for the better Reiglement of Commerce in this particular; therefore I may be held excusable, if I be found in this point to be defective in this MAP, and so concluding herewith, proceed to the next point, which is of the Moneys and Coins of sundry Kingdoms, used in the Traffick of Merchandizing.

CHAP. V. Of the Monies and Coins of sundry Countries, used in general in the Traffick of Merchandize.

Silver and Gold the most excel­lent of Me­tals.AMongst all the diversity of Metals which GOD the Creator hath shut up in the closet and concavity of the Earth, none is accounted more singular and excellent than Silver and Gold, of which the Communication and Commerce of Mankind have framed and invented the use of Money and Coin, which Money and Coin may be properly termed to be the Univer­sal Measure of all things in the World; and though that thus naturally and originally they be but Metals, and so to be in themselves accounted, yet in value and estimation, Moneys and Coins made thereof are to us (as all things,) for they are to us (converted once to th [...] use) as Meat, Cloth, House, Horse, and generally what other thing soever Man hath else need of; and thereby it is evident and manifested that all things are obedient and in subjection to Moneys; and that by this device, a mean was found out and invented, whereby one thing should be to Mer­chants as all, and therefore men thrust forward by natural inclination and worldly judgment, chose to this end and use at first, the thing that was found most durable, proper, and maniable, which they only observed best to be Metal; Coins made of Silver and Gold.and amongst all Metals gave Silver and Gold the preheminence in the invention of Moneys, which of their own nature was thus observed to be most durable and incorruptible, and of which we find, as well in these our times, as in times past, most Princes of the World, to make their current Coins of, between man and man in Trade of Merchandize. Bartering and Ex­changing before the use of Gold and Silver.I deny not but in the innocency of those golden times of old, when neither Silver nor Gold was put to this use, there was yet a Traffick found, and a Commerce practis'd amongst Mankind, which may be imagined did not then extend it self to buying and selling in that same nature, as now it is in use since the invention of Moneys, but only to a Trucking, Exchanging, and Bartering, and that only for things necessary to back and belly to feed and cloath, and so to preserve life; but these times worn out by a more acute age, and men laying to themselves a foundation of Sovereignty and Greatness, the stronger still depriving the weaker, and riches thereby becoming desirable, this Mystery crept up, and was admitted; and therefore from these two Minerals was found out a Body, which once authorized by power of the Magistrate, had a predominancy over all earthly things, and by which was squared out and levell'd (as by an indifferent measure) all things appertaining to Mankind, the abundance thereof brought with it the abundance of honour, attendants, necessaries, and superfluities, so that he that had most in his possession, was accounted of, as being the most eminent and greatest personage in the eye, rule and esteem of the World.

But to come to the present Times, though in general throughout all Europe, it is now found that Coins and Moneys, of Silver and Gold, (as is afore observed) is only in use, and that all Commerce and Traffick is principally drawn and maintained thereby; yet it is noted in this MAP, that all Nations have not yet submitted their judgment to the Prerogative of these two [Page 16] Minerals, but retain still in use some other things serving in their stead and place; Several sorts of Mo­neys in se­veral Coun­tries. Moneys of Leather in S. Dominico, &c.for first, in the Islands of Porto Riccio, Saint Dominico, and in many places of America, they have in use small pieces of Leather, current for Coins amongst them, not that they want Silver and Gold, for they enjoy it in greatest abundance, but want the use and invention thereof; as of late days it is found to be established there by the Spaniards as with us in Europe. Neither was this only the custom of these parts alone; for it is observable, that in Peru, and elsewhere, where the greatest plenty of Silver and Gold was found out and digged, it was never put to this use by the Inhabitants themselves.

Divers yet in this kind, to this day, is the custom of Coins and Moneys that are used and goeth current throughout the World; for beside the aforesaid use whereto these Metals have been put, as to be thus imployed, the common Standard to rule all Trade and Commerce, and the Estates as well of the Prince as Subject in Europe, and many other parts of the World: those Nations that have been defective in this point, and that have not valued these Metals as the Europeans do, have yet found out some particular thing or matter, whereto they have by a National and unanimous consent, (as it were,) attributed this power to have a main stroak in their Negociation and Traffick, and wherein their wealth is found principally to consist.

Moneys of Shells in Tombute.In sundry parts of Africa, they use for their small Coins a kind of Shells as current amongst them, though their greatest payments be made either in Sand of Gold, which they term Ti­burin, or an Ingot. The same is the use this day also in the Kingdom of Tombuto, and other adjoining Countries.

Of Iron in Massa.In other places of that Continent they use Iron for their Coin, their smallest pieces being an ounce weight; and this is seen practised in Massa, and other Kingdoms also there­about.

Of Luma­ches in Con­go.In the Kingdom of Congo is taken up along the Sea-shore, great store of Shell fishes, differing from the former used in Tombuto, called Lumaches, which they distinguish male and female, the shell whereof is there accounted a Coin, and wherewith they use to buy both Silver and Gold, but with Silver or Gold either in Mass or Coin, can they not buy any other thing needful what­soever.

Of Glass-Beads in Melinda.In Melinda, they have little Balls of Glass, in manner of our red Beads, which come to them from Cambaia and other places, and these are their Coins and Moneys; and with them Gold is neither found to be of account nor esteem.

Of Salt and Paper in Cathay.In some places of Cathay, their Money is a kind of Paper stamped, and in some other Salt baked into small Cakes, for the excellent use and scarcity thereof, passeth current as Coins amongst them.

Of Ganza in Pegu.In Pegu their Money is called Ganza, and is made of Copper and Lead, which every man may at his pleasure both coin and stamp that is able; for Gold and Silver is accounted as a Merchan­dize amongst them.

Of Almonds in Bengala.In Bengala, their small Money is a fruit resembling the Almond, which passeth current from man to man in Traffick. Of Skulls of dead men in Sumatra.And in the Island Sumatra it hath been observed, that the skulls of their slain Enemies was accounted their greatest treasure, with which they buy and barter; and he is the richest man that hath the greatest number thereof in his house. Of Pepper and Cocos in India.And lastly, in many places of India they use Pepper and Cocos-nuts in lieu of Money, and the same passeth current for Coin in many places of India: and to conclude, it may be observed throughout this MAP of COMMERCE, that though Silver and Gold is not the Metal generally in use for the coining and stamping of Money throughout all the World; yet these other things specified, carry with them in matter of Commerce in these places the like efficacy and power.

Money cal­led by three several Names.To proceed then, Budelius, Varro, and sundry Authors writing upon the original of Moneys, and upon the excellency of this predominant point of Traffick, affirm, That all Coins in the general have been nominated by their several and distinct Names. 1. Moneta, 2. Nummus, 3. Pecunia; the reasons given thereof are these: Moneta.First, Moneta is said to have taken that name, and is derived à Monendo, which is to admonish and warn the people of the name of the Prince, vel Nummi nota, and of such a sign or mark impressed thereupon, thereby alluding to the faying of CHRIST, Matth. 22. Where the Pharisees brought him a penny, he thereupon demanding whose image and superscription that was? and they answered, Caesar's; then said he unto them, Give therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto GOD the things that are GOD's.

Nummus.Secondly, Nummus is said to take its name, as some will have it, à Numerando vel Numi­ne, of the name of the Prince stamped upon it, as a Ducate is said from Ducatus, or as some say, from Numa Pompilius the Roman King, who is said to be the first that 1900 years past commanded Moneys to be made, whereof ever since after his name every piece of Money is called Nummus; or again, as some hold, it is derived from Nomos, which signifieth a Law, and [Page 17]implieth as much as such a Prince or such a Common-wealth hath ordained Money, from whom it hath taken a certain price and value.

Pecunia.Thirdly, Pecunia is derived à Pecude, of Cattle, Sheep, and Oxen; wherein was said to con­sist the wealth of the Ancients, and whereon the figure thereof was stamped, and is constiued to be all manner of living Creatures, wanting the form of Man: and some hold that the name of Money signifieth, not only Money numbred or told, but also all things that are contained in the World; as well moveable as immoveable, liquid as solid; and in general, all things what­soever Men have upon Earth.

From these three names and kinds grew first amongst the Romans a particular distinction, and nomination of the quality of the species, as they were current in worth and esteem amongst them: for they had then in use certain Moneys of Copper, as well as the others of Silver and Gold: Denarii.and because every piece of the Silver was in value ten pieces of the Copper, it was called Denarius; and because every piece of Gold was worth ten pieces of Silver, the same was also called Denari­us; and thus for distinction sake, other Nations in their Coins in after-ages followed their exam­ple; Easterling Money of England.and our English Moneys came to have the appellation of Sterling, and to be distinguished in­to pounds, shillings, and pence, as some say from the Easterlins that were in times past the Masters of our Mint, and the Refiners of our Coins, which yet holdeth this name, and by which the same is known throughout all Europe. But to conclude this Chapter, however Coins and Mo­neys came to have their original and names, and however the same came to be distinguished, and of what Metal soever the same is in these days found to be made of and framed; yet when once the same is allowed by the publick Authority of the Prince and Sovereign Magistrate, Coins deba­sed or alte­red is a capi­tal crime.it is held a capital Crime in all Countreys, either to deface, mend, alter, or any ways to debase the same; and therefore most justly (the circumstances considered) do the Coins of Princes current in all their Countries challenge a principal part and interest in the Universal Commerce of the World.

[Page 18] A Table shewing the fineness (compared with the Tower -Stan­dard) the value as Bullion, and the Intrinsick value of several Coins of forein Nations, both Silver and Gold; as they were Essayed in the Tower of London, June 1651.

[Page 19] A Table of the Gold and Silver weights of several Nations, taken from the Standards, and compa­red with the Denarius or Pound Troy English, consisting of 5760 Grains.

• SUch parts, or grains, of the English Standard for Gold, and Silver (or of the Troy weight) as the Denarius Consularis containeth 62, according to the weight of the best Coins, or ac­cording to the weight of the Congius of Vespasian 62⅘ Grains.
• The ancient and modern Roman ounce containeth 438 grains.
• The ancient and modern Roman pound, consisting of twelve ounces, containeth 5256 grains.
• The Troy pound, or English Standard of Gold and Silver, consisting of twelve ounces, con­taineth 5760 grains.
• The Troy or English ounce (to which five shillings two pence of our Money in these times are equal) containeth 480 gr.
• The Paris pound, or Standard for Gold and Silver of 16 ounces 7560 gr.
• The Paris ounce 472½ gr.
• The Spanish Pound or Standard for Gold and Silver of 16 ounces, taken by me at Gibral­ter, 7090 gr.
• Another weighed by me at Gibralter, 7085 gr.
• The Spanish Pound in Vilalpondus is (I know not by what error) but 7035 gr.
• The Spanish ounce at Gibralter, the Pound consisting of 7090 grains English 443½ gr.
• The Venetian Pound, or Standard for Gold and Silver, of 12 ounces 5528 gr.
• The Venetian ounce 460⅔ gr.
• The Neapolitan Pound or Standard for Gold and Silver of 12 ounces 4950 gr.
• The Neapolitan ounce 412½ gr.
• The Pound or Standard for Gold and Silver of twelve ounces at Florence, Pisa, and Legorn, 5286 gr.
• The ounce at Florence, Pisa, and Legorn, 440 [...] gr.
• The Pound or Standard at Siena for Gold and Silver of twelve ounces 5178 gr.
• The ounce at Siena 431½ gr.
• The ounce at Genoa for Gold and Silver 405½ gr.
• The Turkish Oketh or Oke, at Constantinople, consisting of four hundred silver drams, 19128 grains.
• The Silver Dram generally used in the great Turks Dominions, as also in Persia, and in the Moguls Countreys, if I be not mis-informed, 47 41/50 gr.
• The Turkish Sultani, or Egyptian Xeriff, being a Gold-coyn, with which the Barbary and Ve­netian Chequeen, and Norimberg Ducat, within a grain more or less, agree 53½ gr.
• The Ratel, or Rotulo, for Gold and Silver of 144 drams at Cairo, 6886 [...] dr.
• The Ratel, or Rotulo, for Silk of 720 drams at Damascus, with which I suppose they there formerly weighed their Gold and Silver; because most Countreys use the same weights for Silks, Gold, and Silver) 34430⅖ gr.

The Standard for Gold, An. 1577. was 23 Carots, 3 grains and ½ of fine Gold, and ½ grain of Silver or Copper.

• 12 oz. of Gold of the said fineness is valued at 36 l.
• 1 oz. of the same 3 l.
• 1 Kes of the same 1 l. 10.
• 1 Kes. grain 7 s. 6.
• 1 Peny weight 3 s.
• 1 Small grain 1 d. ½ ob.
• 1 Carot upon the ounce is in value 2 s. 6 d.
• 1 Carot is in value 7 d. ½ ob.
• 1 Small grain 1 d. ½ ob.
• 12 oz. of Angels of Gold hath in them half a Carot grain of Allay, which is 30 small, and 5730 small grains of fine Gold, which maketh together 5760 grains, being 24 Carots or 12 oz. Troy.

The Standard of Crown Gold is 22 Carots of fine Gold, and 2 Carots of Allay, which 24 Carots or 11 oz. fine Gold, and 102 of Allay makes the Pound Troy, by which reckoning

• 12 oz. of Crown Gold is in Money 33 l.
• 1 oz. of the said Gold is 2 l. 15 s.
• 1 Carot of the said Gold is 1 l. 7 s. 6.

[Page 20] It is to be noted, That all Gold is in value by the Ounce according as it is in fineness, that is to say,

And so losing its value 2 s. 6. d. per ounce, as it wants a Carot in fineness in 24. or Pound Troy.

King James by Proclamation, dated at Westminster, 16 Nov. 2d year of his Reign, appointed several Coins of Gold and Silver of one Standard, with their weights according to the Account of the Mint­men of both Nations, which is exprest in this following Table. Note, that the Pound Troy is greater than the Pound Scotch by 4 peny weight and 9 gr.

To know the goodness of Gold or Silver upon the Touch-stone, by comparing it unto certain Wires or Needles of Gold and Silver of several allays, which is approved by Pliny Book 33. Chap. 18. before the way of Trial by Essay by Fire; for that there are many casualities in the practice of making Essays by Fire; and the other by the Touch is visible to the Eye

Those Needles or Wires to be made of four sorts: First, they be made of Gold and Silver; Second, of Gold and Copper; Third, Of Gold, Silver, and Copper; And fourth, Of Silver and Copper: The three first sorts are only for the Trial of Gold, and the last for Silver.

Let there be 24 Needles of Wires made of the several mixture or allays following:

And so still 1 Carot worst, till you have but one Carot of fine Gold, and 23 of Silver, all marked of what fineness each Needle or Wire is of, Also there may be made the like of the other two mixtures, viz. of Gold and Copper, likewise of Gold, Silver, and Copper.

[Page 21] For the making those Wires or Needles for Tryal of Silver, let the mixture or Allay be as followeth.:

And so till you have 1 ounce of Silver, and 11 ounces of Copper; all marked of what fine­ness it is.

The use of these several Needles is, if you desire to know the goodness or fineness of any In­got, or piece of Gold or Silver, touch the said Ingot or piece upon your Touch-stone, and by it touch such of your Needles as shall be most like the touch of your Ingot, which will better appear being wetted with your tongue, and that of your Needle the Gold or Silver Ingot or Piece is best like unto, of that finess it will be found to be.

Sheweth the Fineness or Goodness of divers several Coyns of Gold and Silver, and the Rates of cer­tain forein Pieces of Gold and Silver (not current) as the [...]nce is worth in the Kings Mints here in England.

Old Moneys.

The Fineness or Goodness of certain Coins of Silver.

Spanish Moneys.

Other Forein Coins.

Of Old English Money and Edward Pence, of 20 to the Ounce.

Of the Carot Weight used only for Pretious Stones and Pearls.

This is a Weight brought from the Venetians, and derived from the Indians or Moors, called Mangear or Fanan, which is a Weight not much differing from this called a Carot-Weight, whereof 150 Carots in weight do make one ounce Troy; this Carot weight is divided into 64 Carots, 32 Carots, 16 Carots, 8 Carots, 4 Carots, 2 Carots, 1 Carot, ½ Carot, ¼ Carot, [...] Carot, [...] Carot.

The Weights used in India for buying and selling Pretious Stones and Pearls by, is called Mangeluy or Mangear, (about 5 Grains in weight) and weigheth two Tarrs ⅓, which is ⅔ parts of 1 Carot, being 4 grains and 4 Tarrs weight a Fanan, which is also a weight somewhat above 2 of our Carots; for 11 Fanans and ¼ is one Mitigal, and 6 Mitigals and ½ do make 1 Ounce. A Fanan also is a kind of Money, which is in value 1 Ryal of Spain.

Now followeth the Rule in Proportion, how to value the true Rate of a Diamond, or any other Stone valuable, as Merchants of skill do use to value them one from the other: the Diamond being as chief of all Pretious Stones, is sold by weight from Merchant to Merchant, called by the English, German, and Venetian, a Carot weight, as before is rehearsed.

The Diamond hath a very certain thickness, whereby it is certainly wrought out and polish­ed upon the Mill; for it must not be too thick, nor too thin; for then it will not bear his Tent, but must have his just proportion of thickness to bear his Tent, or else to be set on Velvet as a thin Stone; the proportion is, that the two squares on the sides must make the breadth of the upper-part of the Stone, and the under part of the Stone be no broader than that three of the breadths thereof will make the breadth of the upper part, and in depth accord­ing to the same proportion, and the squares called Bizils must stand close with the edge of the Ring or Collet, wherein it is set, being of the whole depth, and somewhat longer than square, and yet no more than that it may be guerted, which is the length and breadth thereof. Also it must be without any faults both in corners or sides, and every one of the four corners sharp and clean cut without any naytness, and of a good water-crystalline, and shining clear, not yel­low or brown, blewish or blackish, but clear and clean in all perfection. Then we may say, a Diamond thus perfect weighing one Carot, is worth 50 Ducates, but now much altered from that value to double the same, as a Diamond of that perfection before spoken of, weighing 1 Carot, is worth 30, 35, or 40 lib. Sterling; but a Diamond not so perfect (though a good Stone) clean, and wanting a corner, is in estimation less worth by 10 Ducats, or according to Arbitrament of the Buyer. Note also, that some Diamonds are not worth passing 34, 35, or 36 Dollars a Carot, which are likewise bought by the Merchant, as the humour leads him. But when you will value a Diamond, you must look effectually of what water and fashion it is, as the best proportion is either the square Table or pointed, then if it hath all his depth (cal­led in Art, Full-ground) which is soon seen in a Stone unset, and easily discerned in one set [Page 25]in a Ring or Jewel; for being a full-ground Stone, it standeth upon his Tent, as you shall easi­ly perceive by the reflection of the Collet the Stone stands in; otherwise being a half- [...]ound Stone, or a thin Stone, it standeth upon Velvet, which is easily perceived by any that is well versed in the setting or selling of Diamonds; then if it be foul, or want corners, or any hair or other fault in it, the damage and hurt that it bringeth to the value of the Stone is bated in the price of the first Carot (if it be a Stone of a greater weight) and so shall you not be so soon deceived as otherwise. You must first understand, that the value and price of a perfect Diamond, or any other Precious Stone, is first valued from a Carot weight being 4 Grains, as aforesaid, the which is the ground-work for the Merchant or Jeweller to value a Diamond by, to know the Price thereof.

Then the half Carot weight is in value the price of the fourth part of a Carot; as for Ex­ample, If the Carot be worth 40 Ducates, then the fourth part is 10 Ducates, which is the price of a Diamond of half a Carot; so a grain is reckoned worth a fourth part of half a Carot, which is 2 Ducates and a half, after the rate of 40 Ducates the Carot, as aforesaid; and so you may value a Diamond or other Stone at any price whatsoever the Carot shall be ra­ted at, weighing never so much.

So that if you have a Diamond that weigheth more than a Carot, as a Carot and half, or a Carot and 1 Grain; then take this for a General Rule, that you must bring the weight of your Carot and half Carot all into half Carots; and so in like manner, if it be a Carot and a Grain, you must bring both into Grains; As for Example, If you have a Table Diamond in all Perfe­ction, as is aforesaid, weighing one Carot, be worth 40 Ducates, (or any other sum you will value a perfect Diamond at) then shall a Diamond of 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 Carots, be worth at that rate, as followeth: As suppose it be 2 Carots, multiply that by 2, it makes 4, which multi­ply by 40 Ducates (the value we here take for a Diamond of 1 Carot) and it produceth 160 Ducates, being the value of a perfect Diamond of 2 Carots; so you may value all Diamonds of any weight if it be 100 Carots or more, by multiplying the weight by so much more, and multiply that product by the value of your Carot. Secondly, If you have a Table Diamond of 2 Carots and half, then bring the Carots and half Carots into half Carots, which is 5 half Carots, then multiply that 5 by 5 make 25 half Carots, which multiply by 10 Ducates, the fourth part of 40 Ducates, the price of a Carot amounteth to 250 Ducates, which is the true value of a Diamond weighing 2 Carots and half. Thirdly, If you have a Table Diamond of 7 Grains, which is 1 Carot and 3 Grains, then bring the Carot and Grains into Grains, and multiply it one by the other, saying 7 times 7 is 49 Grains, which is to be multiplied by the fourth part of the half Carot being reduced, and half and the product is the value of the said Diamond of 7 Grains, which is 127 Ducates. Again, suppose you value a Diamond at 30 l. Sterling (as one of that weight of former goodness is now worth in London) and according to that rate a Diamond is worth 1 l. 17 s. 6 d. Sterling; which Rule is now followed by those that Trade in them, although you cannot buy a Table Diamond of 1 gr. under 2 l. 10 s. or 3 l. Sterling, which is after the rate of 40 or 48 pound a Diamond of 1 Carot.

Again, I would know the value of a perfect Table Diamond of 10 Carots, according to the rate of 30 l. a Diamond of 1 Carot: Do thus, Multiply the weight of your Diamond by it self, which is 10 by 10, and it produceth 100, which multiply by 30 l. the price of a Dia­mond of 1 Carot, the product is 3000 l. the price of a Diamond of 10 Carots.

Again, I desire to know the price of a Table Diamond weighing 10 Carots and 1 Grain, bring all into Grains and they make 41, which multiply by it self makes 1681; this multiplied by the value of 1 Grain, which is 1 l. 17 s. 6 d. and the product will be 3151 l. 17 s. 6 d.

The value of a Diamond of any weight from 1 Grain to 8 Carots, according to the value of a Diamond of 1 Grain to be worth 1 l. 17 s. 6 d. may be seen in this following Table.

The Value of Thick Table Diamonds according to their Weight.

The Value of thin Table Diamonds, being a thin Stone (in shew of 2 Grains) and weigheth 1 gr.

The like may be said of any Diamond of any other fashion, as Triangular, Nails, Roses, Roots and the like; which are of less value than the Table Diamond weight for weight, in re­gard their beauty is not proportionable to their weight; so that a Diamond of Perfection of that fashion weighing one Carot is not esteemed worth above 46 Ducates.

The Value of Brut Diamonds, or Naifs, Rocks and Flat-Stone, as they are sold at Goa in India by their weight; and likewise the value of the like Diamond sold here in London by the Carot. The Indian Weight is called a Mangear, which is ⅓ of a Carot, and the Fanan is about 6 d. Sterling.

So do the Indians increase in price, as the Stones in weight.

There are also two sorts of Diamonds called Boards, the one white, the other black; out of the white are gathered (by those that deal in Boards) all sorts of small Diamonds under 12 in a Carot.

A parcel of Brut Diamonds brought out of Portugal.

Note, That all great Stones under 5 in 1 Carot are cut by the Carot, and all small Stones above 5 in a Carot are cut by the piece.

Of the Ruby called the Carbuncle.

This Stone is found in Zeilam in the Indies, and in great esteem among the People of that Island. The way they use to try if they be right, is by putting them into the fire for the space of certain hours and if they come out of the fire burning as a Coal, those are they which are esteemed amongst them; they are esteemed according to the height of Colour; the more per­fect red, the better: they distinguish the goodness by Carots in Colour; as 24 Carots in colour is the highest perfection, and so several degrees of goodness downward from 24 Carots to 18, 16, 14, 12, to 10 Carots in colour.

The value of the Carbuncle, as they are bought at Calicut in India.

A Carbuncle of so high a colour, and tried in the fire, weighing 1 Carot, which is ½ Fanata is worth in Calicut 30 Fanans.

And so they proceed to increasing in price as they do in weight.

[Page 28] Of the Ruby.

It is found in a River of Pegu in India, the best is esteemed of a perfect red, but will not endure the fire, but loseth his colour therein, being thereby distinguisht from the Carbuncle. There are divers kinds of Rubies, as the Carbuncle, the Ballass, the Spinal, the Gurnet, and the Rubas, but the Oriental Ruby is esteemed the best next the Carbuncle. A Ruby that is squared Table wise and without fault, and is to fit with a Diamond of the same weight of 16, 18, 20, or 24 Carots in colour (as is spoken of the Carbuncle) such a Rubie is worth in the Indies, weighing a Fanan, 100 Ducates; but there be few Rubies be perfect of that greatness, the usual way of computing the value of a Ruby is the same as it is with a Diamond: First, to con­sider the number of Carots in Colour, and then in weight, and the price doth augment pro­portionable to the Diamond; or if you shall value of a Ruby of 1 Carot weight to 70 Du­cates, and would know the value of one weighing 2 Carots of like Carots in colour, multiply 2 by 2 makes 4, which multiply by the value of one Carot being 70 Ducates, produceth your desire, as in this following Table.

A Ruby of 20 Carots in colour, and weight 11 Carots and ½, was sold for 350 l. and sold again for 640 l. Sterling in London.

Another Ruby of most excellent beauty of 24 Carots in colour, and weighed 1 Carot 3 Grains 1/ [...] was sold in London for 60 l. and and sold again for 120 l.

The Proportionable Value of Rubies bought and sold by the Indians.

The Saphyre is a Stone found in the Island of Zeilam, Calicut, Canoner, Basinger, and Pegu, is of four sorts; the best is an Azure Sky-colour, and valued as it excelleth in colour, and of a most perfect blew, it excelleth all other Stones in hardness (the Diamond excepted.)

The Value of the best Oriental Saphyres as they are sold in the Islands of Zeilam, is after this Rate and Proportion.

A Saphyre weighing 1 Mitegal, which is 11 Fanans and ¼ that is about 23 Carots, is worth after the rate aforesaid, 350.

[Page 29] The Turquoise is of a thick green colour, or between a green and skie-colour, and of small weight; the softest of all thick-coloured Stones, is in good esteem in India, and is esteemed the better for having black veins, it being then accounted of the old Rock. The price in India, according to the weight is in proportion following:

Of the Pearl Oriental.

Unio is the Latin word (in English Pearl) so called, for that it is a hard matter to find two Pearls alike for bigness, figure, shape, water, and brightness. The greatest and better sort of Pearl are found between Ormus and Buzera in the Straits of Persia. There is also a fish­ing for Pearl near the Island of Zeilam, but of lower price: Likewise there are Pearls found near the Island of Burneo, and Island of Anian; but those of Ormus surpass them all. They are fished for by divers that dive into the Sea, some 10, 15, and 10 fathom deep; they grow in Oyster-shells; the Divers have Baskets tied to their back to put the Oysters in, and bring them up from the bottom of the Sea, and put them into Boats; the fish are laid in the Sun, and there open themselves; and when the fishing is over for that day, the Captain and Souldiers for the King of Portugal, together with the Divers and Labourers, take the Pearls, and divide them into four parts, one of which is taken for the King, the second for the Cap­tain and Souldiers, the third for the Jesuits (whose Cloyster is hard by) and the fourth for the Divers, Fishers, and their Labourers. This fishing is only in the Summer-time; there is found in some Oysters 200 Grains or Pearl. Pearls are sold by the Indians by Sieves of Latton full of holes, from smaller to greater, to the proportion of 12, one bigger than the other; and so the price in proportion accordingly; the smallest sorts are used by Apothecaries for Medicine. They use in India where they are fished, to have Rice beaten small with Salt, with which they rub the Pearl to put a gloss upon them.

The way to value Oriental Pearl from a Grain in weight to any bigness whatsoever; as also they are usually sold in the Indies and with us. A Pearl that is in all parts perfect both of water, gloss, and beauty, without knobs, specks, yellowness, and other imperfection; of form very round, or like a Pearl, being of the weight of one Carot, is worth one Ducate; and after this rate you are to make your reckoning, as you have done before with Diamonds and Rubies; but if there be any fault in the water, clearness, fashion, knobs, specks, dents, or other default, it must be considered what hurt it may be to the sale thereof, and according to the goodness or badness value the price thereof,; which having valued, you try the weight thereof, or by your measure exactly made (there being such for that purpose) and then make your account, as before is said; and if there be a whole string or chain, you must look well upon them if they be all alike, or else make your value thereafter.

The Proportion or Value of Pearl as they are sold in India and Portugal.

[Page 30] Small Pearl are sold by the Ivora at Ormus and Goa.

Seed-Pearl that are small and cannot be holed, are for the Apothecaries; the ounce is worth about 20 Marividis.

The Value of any Oriental Pearl of any bigness from 1 Grain to 30 Carots of excellent beauty and perfection for colour and shape, as they are usually bought and sold with us, according to the proportion of weight, and of like perfection.

[Page 31] Seed-Pearl.

The value of Seed-Pearl, from the smallest sort of 4500 in one ounce, to the greatest sort of 400 or 450 in one ounce, being the ordinary six sorts always sold together.

Rag-Pearl.

All sorts of half-round Pearls are according to their weight valued at half the price of a round Pearl; so that if a half-round Pearl do weigh one Carot, then it is to be valued at 5 s. which is half the price of a round of a Carot.

The Denarius among the Romans may be considered under a double respect; either as Money, or Weight; the first was a valuation put upon it by the State in Civil Affairs, as Coin, which hath been va­rious and subject to great alterations; the later in gravity or weight hath been at a certainty, and of long continuation amongst them, for above 1600 years.

The Coins of the Romans were of Gold, Silver, and Copper; those of Silver was the De­narius, taken by the Romans from the Sicilians, and as Pliny affirms, l. 33. c. 3. was in use with them in the 585th year of the City (as also the Brass Coins) five years before the first Punick Wars. The proportion then betwixt the Silver and Brass, in respect of Weight, was very strange; for the Denarius of Silver was the seventh part of the ounce, and the ounce the twelfth part of the pound, and yet was esteemed in value equal to 10 asses, which was a Brass Coin of a pound weight; so that one pound in Silver was esteemed to 840 pound in Brass. When their Coins of Gold came in use, it was esteemed ten times the weight in Silver; but this dis­proportion between Silver and Brass lasted not long; and the Denarius of Silver in process of time suffered so many diminutions, that at length it had left only a Name, and of so small a value as not worth the coining.

The like alteration in respect of weight hath befallen in far less time our own Coin; as to instance in our Penny, which we find in the time of Ethelred, and so continued to Edw. 1. to be the 20th part of the Troy ounce, Stat. 9. Edw. 3. under Edw. 3. it came to be made the 26th part of the ounce; and Stat. 2. H. 6. under H. 6. it fell to the 32d part; in Stat. 5. Edw. 4. Stat. 36. H. 8. Edw. the 4th's time it came to the fortieth part of the ounce; in Henry the 8th's time, at first it was the fortieth, then the 45th part, afterward 60 pence were made of the ounce; in the 2 Eliz. and during her reign, and ever since, 62 in the ounce; so that the Penny in Edw. the 3d's time was more than three times the weight of ours. And after-times may see this of ours as well as the D [...]arius of the Romans, brought to so small a value as not worthy a name.

Of Amber.It is observed, that Amber is found only in and upon the Coast of England and Poland; the English is found only upon the Coast of Norfolk, near the Bay of Shippy Island in Kent, in two or three miles space. It is affirmed, that at both these places it hath been found time out of mind: it is not found above sixty pound weight a year: It is washed out of the Sea, for after great storms it is most found: many are of opinion it is the Gum of a Tree; if so, sure the Tree, if it were above ground, would be found long before this. It is most probable to be a certain Gum, that comes out of some Rock lying in the Sea near those places; for why else should it be only found there, and no where else?

In Poland are found greater quantities, but not in so good esteem as our English, being nei­ther so fat nor clear; it is valued according to the largeness and clearness thereof.

CHAP. VI. Of Weights in general used in Merchandizing, and mentioned in this MAP of COMMERCE.

Of Weights in general.THE next principal point handled in this MAP of COMMERCE, is the Weights in ge­neral of all Kingdoms and known Cities of Trade, by the invention whereof (as by Mea­sures) a true mean was found out, to give every man his own; for all worldly things are found to be govern'd by it and measure; but most especially the same hath a great Prerogative in all Contracts and Bargains, where either Buying or Selling is either used or practised, which indeed is the fundamental part of the World's Commerce and Traffick; for thereby are all Commutations regulated, all Accounts framed, and all Profit and Loss in Trade found out and distinguished: It is also one of the Standards of all Kingdoms, Cities and Provinces, and therefore as Measure carries with it the Approbation and Authority of the Sovereign Magistrate, and therefore either to fal­sifie, add or detract therefrom is accounted a capital Crime, and worthy severest Punish­ment.

Differences of Weights in all Com­modities.Now for their sorts; These Weights are observed to vary and differ in all Countries, as well as in sundry Mart and principal Cities; though otherwise oftentimes Neighbours, yet are herein discrepant, and not seldom is it seen, (as in this Map it shall be made evident) that several sorts of weights are found to weigh several sorts of commodities in one and the self-same Place, City and Country; as in England, where it is observed, that raw Silk is weighed by the Pound of 24 ounces, and other commodities by the Pound of 16 ounces: And in Aleppo, some commo­dities are weighed by the Rotolo of 680 drams, some by a ℞ of 700 drams, and some by a ℞ of 720 drams. The great­est denomi­nation.And as these weights are found to vary in respect of their greatness, so are they found to differ in respect of their denomination; for some Countries use to weigh their com­modities by Hundreds, some by Quintals, some by Centiners, Talents, Thousands, Weighs, Ship­pounds, Charges, Lisponds, Roves, Stones, Bahars, Mands, Candills, Peculls, and the like.

A second denomina­tion.A second denomination is again produced out of this, as a lesser Weight, whereof the former is composed; and is also found in use for weighing in sundry places, as Pounds, Mans, Batmans, Rotulos, Minas, Lodoros, Oaks, Cattees, Barotes, Seares, Wesnoes, and the like.

Third deno­mination.A third sort again are found to be in use, whereof these latter are composed and in use, in the custom of weighing; and which are of another denomination, and lesser in quantity, as Ounces, whereof sometimes 12, 14, 16, 20, 24, and 30, do make according to the custom of the place the pound weight, and then again have a subdivision into Drams, Scruples, Obolos, Carats, and Grains; Least deno­mination.so that the greater contains the lesser in parts, which also is observed to differ according to the proportion of the first and greatest; Hundreds, &c.for the Cantar, which common­ly is observed to be the greatest weight, is so termed, as being the hundred of hundreds, and consisteth sometimes of 100 l. just, though sometimes of hundreds, of 112 l. of 120 l. of 125 l. 128 l. and 132 l.

Cargos, &c.The Weigh and Cargo are in like manner found likewise to vary in many places, and to con­sist sometimes of 163 l. of 181 l. of 200 and 300 l. to a Weigh and Cargo or charge.

Shippond, &c.The Shippond also consists sometimes of 300 l. sometimes again of 320, 340, and 400 l. the Shippond.

Lispond, &c.The Lispond also is found to consist sometimes of 15 l. of 16 l. and 20 l. to the Lispond.

Roves, &c. Roves are noted likewise to be in some places 10 l. 20 l. 25 l. and 30 l. and sometimes 40 l. to the Rove.

Stone, &c. Stones are noted also to consist of 6 l. 8 l. 10 l. 14 l. 16 l. 20 l. 21 l. 24 l. 32 l. and 40 l. to the Stone, still altering according to the custom of the place.

Rotolos, &c. Rotolos are also noted to vary and to consist sometimes of 400 drams, sometimes of 600 drams, 680 drams, 700 drams, and 720 drams, according to the custom of the place, and ac­cording to the custom in use of the commodity.

The Mer­chant must be vers'd in all Weights.In all which the Merchant must not be ignorant, that intends to make either an use, or reap a benefit by this MAP of COMMERCE: for all weights must be to him (in regard of his skill and judgment) as one Weight; knowing readily how to make his Calculations in all Contracts; how the one weight doth advance of the other, or what the one may want of the other, making his Accompt of concordancy, allowing or deducting where he finds the discrepancy arising by overplus, or either by a want in the one or in the other.

Two man­ners of weighing in use.Now for the manner of weighing in general (so far forth as ever I have observed) hath been noted to have been done two several ways; that is, either by a Beam, or by a Romant or Stalier: By Beams.the weight by Beam I hold the best and justest performed with leaden, brass, or iron weights, provided the same Beam be good and even, both empty, and laden with one equal [Page 33] weight; and this is seen to be the common custom of weighing in England, Netherlands, and in many other places and Countries,

By Stalier.The weight by Stalier, which is used in Turkey, Barbary, and Italy, and sundry other Coun­tries, I hold not so sure; for thereupon is marked all the number of weights that may be weigh­ed thereby, which by the help of a small counterpoise removed to several stations, supplies sometimes the place of a pound, and sometimes the place of 100 pound, wherein is oftentimes found great deceit, which by the buyer and seller is carefully and heedfully in those places to be both prevented and avoided.

To abbrevi­ate the la­bour of weighing.Now if with a Beam one would abbreviate a long labour with a small time and pains, and weigh much with few weights, his weights must be made by an augmentation doubled, as by pieces of 1 lib. 2 lib. 4 lib. 8 lib. 16 lib. 32 lib. and 64 lib. making in all 127 lib. with which all sums under that number may be comprehended and weighed; and some exercised in great affairs, by single weights tripled have gone further and procured 1 l. 3 l. 9 l. 27 l. 81 l. &c. and thereby with little labour have performed very weighty and great business: but I leave this to the ingenious, and to him that shall fancy this method and manner of weighing.

Weights au­thorized by the Magi­strate.In all Cities then, and places of Traffick, there is found a weight (as I said) authorized by the Magistrate, which to alter or diminish is ever held a capital crime: this weight thus setled in every place and City of Trade, is reputed the Standard of the place, by which as well the Inhabitants as Strangers do make their bargains and contracts, and without which many bar­gains cannot be made and perfected; Weigh-house.and therefore partly to avoid scruple and doubt, and partly to do justice to all men, and partly to decide all controversies incident in weighing, there is in the most eminent Cities a publick Weigh-house set up and appointed, where every man may repair unto, either for necessity of weighing, or tryal of his weights, and which is authorized by the Prince as a rule for all men, that shall have occasion to make use thereof in the said places, serving sometimes as the Beam whereby his Customs and Duties are paid him; Weigher sworn.the Master, Overseer, or Weigher being ever sworn and deputed to do justice and right in his weighing, not only between man and man, but (if need be) between the Prince and the Subject.

By which weights the weight of this Book is calculated.This Weight accounted thus the common and received Standard of Cities and Countries, is it, upon which (as near as I could possible) I have in all these following places made my Observations, and from thence raised not only the agreement thereof, with other neighbouring places and Cities, but also with that which we call our Haberdepou weight of England, where­in with all industry I have laboured to find out the truth and certainty thereof, which (as sub­ject to error by reason of the diversity) I must refer to the future trial of the better experienced, concluding this point with a way and method invented by unequal weights to accord the weights of any two known places or Cities, which briefly is thus performed.

A way to accord the weight of a­ny two pla­ces.Prepare a Ballance as exactly made as is possible, that a very little thing may cause them to incline one way or other; likewise prepare of the one place, the just pound, the half pound, the ¼ the ½ the 1/16 the 1/ [...]8 the 1/64 the 1/1 [...] and the 1/123 part of that pound, if it be possible, until you judge it to be sufficient; then take the just pound weight of the other place, and put it into one of the Scales of the Ballance, and in the other Scale, put such weights as may justly counterpoise the pound weight of that place: as for example:

Say that the half the ¼ the [...]; and the 1/238 part of the pound of the first place do justly coun­terpoise the pound weight of the other place; then by consequence it followeth, that 128 lib. 64 lib. 32 lib. and 1 lib. that is in all 255 lib. of the first place, do justly weigh 256 lib. of the other place, Again, say that the 1 lib. the ⅛ 1/ [...] 1/ [...] of the first place do justly counterpoise the pound weight of the other; then I infer thereby that 512. 64. [...]2. and 1. that is in all 579 lib. of the first place do justly weigh 512 lib. of the other place; by which the calcula­tion may be made both to the hundred and to the pound; therefore the further search and consideration thereof, I willingly here omit, and refer the same to the curiosity of the more in­genious

CHAP. VII. Of Accounts and Account-keeping in general, observed in this MAP of COMMERCE.

Accounts necessary in the Map of Commerce.ALl rational Negotiators, and Traders in general will grant, That this Map of Commerce would appear to be very imperfect, if it should want the due Rules and Observations whereby Accounts are in all Cities of Commerce ordered and kept, which though found in them­selves to vary in several Kingdoms, and places, as having oftentimes a dependency, and some­times concurrency with the Coins and Moneys of each Kingdom; yet in all places they are not found to have the like agreement together. Accounts kept diversly in divers Ci­ties and Countries.Some Countries being observed to keep their Ac­counts, and the denomination thereof in imaginary Coins, such as neither that Country not Place hath either proper Coin or Money, that hath any affinity therewith, as by daily practice is seen used in Venice by the Ducate of lire 6⅓; in Florence by the Crown of Gold of lire 7½; and as in England it is used in those antient Accounts, kept in some Offices for the Revenues of the Crown by the name of Marks, of which we find not at this day any proper Coin or Money in use. Again, it is seen by experience, that one and the self-same place affordeth several de­nominations in their Accounts, and divers ways are used in one and the self-same City and Coun­trey therein, as in some Cities of Italy, some are observed to keep their Accounts in Lire, Sol­di, and Denari; and some again in the same place in Crowns, or Scudi, Soldi and Denari; as the like in England is noted, some as before observing their Rules of Accounts in Marks, and Pence, and some, and those the most usual and common, in Pounds, Shillings, and Pence, Sterling; the which is necessary both duly to be learned, and truly to be known, and under­stood, by such as shall have occasion to make use of, and exercise the Art of Merchandizing, and this Map of Commerce.

The Method used in Ac­counts is di­vers.Now for the Method used in keeping these Accounts, every Countrey and Nation are obser­ved to frame to themselves, Ways, Means, and Rules, whereby the same is performed and per­fected, and have for the most part every Countrey a peculiar form by themselves. The best is by way of Debitor and Creditor.The general known Method and best form is by the laudable and excellent way of Debitor and Creditor, first invented in Italy, and now generally practised by most part of the eminent Merchants of Europe, received for the most absolute, best, and truest Method of Accounts that hitherto hath been found out and invented, which here to set down would challenge a Volume by it self; yet such is the necessity of this knowledge, that every Merchant should by the Rules of his Profession, be well versed and seen therein; the Grounds whereof being universally known and daily taught, I reser to my good Friends, Master Ralph Handson, and Master Valentine Markham, who are both ex­cellent, and excellently learned therein; Four rules required in an Accoun­tant,concluding this place with four principal Rules requi­red, and not to be omitted by such as have to do and practise Accounts in Merchandizing.

1. To write all, and all circumstan­ces.First, It is required that in his Account-keeping, he write all and singular the passages thereof, and thereto belonging, with all circumstances of time, price, and other conditions, in every bargain, contract, adventure, receipt of Goods, sales, &c. in which though there should after­ward appear an errour, either by disorderly charging, or by over and under- charging, yet it will easily at a second view be both corrected and amended.

2. Not to suffer his Accounts to out-run himSecondly It is required that he never come behind-hand with his Accounts, by letting the same run over-long, or being daily finished, the trouble will be nothing; but being a while neglected, a man is still found to be the lother and lother, to go in hand therewith, and thus growing more loth every day than other, when necessity constraineth him, either he is infor­ced to mumble them up to his own prejudice, or to cast them off, and to neglect them altoge­ther to his own shame and undoing.

3. To keep them true and perfect.Thirdly, It is required, that he keep them, just, true, and perfect, and not to falsifie any parcel, matter, or thing, nor yet interline or shuffle one matter with another, but to set every thing (ei­ther apportaining to himself, or to any other) plainly, directly, and orderly down.

4. That he be a good Arithmeti­cian.Lastly, It is required, that he be well skill'd in the Art of Arithmetick and Numbering, which indeed is the principal step to this Art of Accounting, and the first degree of this Map of Com­merce, without which knowledge, let none dare to intitle himself a Merchant, nor expect a be­nefit from this Work. For the skill whereof I refer to the Learner, the judicious and excellent Arithmeticians of this City, and so proceed to the next general point of Commerce, which is Measure.

CHAP. VIII. Of Measures in general used in Merchandizing, and comprehended in this MAP of COMMERCE.

Of Measures in general.THe next material point here handled, is the Measures in general, used in all Kingdoms and known Cities of Trade, by means whereof a certain way and method was found out and invented to distinguish and order by Rule the length and breadth of all Commodities measura­ble, especially accustomed in all manner of Fabricks, either, Linen, Woollen, Silks, or other Stuffs; and this is observed also (as in Weights,) to have a special prerogative in many Bargains and Contracts, where either buying or selling of things measurable is subsistent and in use; being grant­ed to be a fundamental point of all the Traffick and Commerce of the Universe; for thereby as by weights many Commutations are regulated, many Accounts are framed, and profit and loss is also thereby found out and distinguished: It is also estimated to be one of the Standards of Kingdoms and Cities; False Mea­sures punish­able by the Magistrate.and therefore (as well as Weights) carrieth with it the Approbation and Authority of the Sovereign Magistrate; and therefore to add or detract therefrom, is ever in all Countries held punishable, and accounted a capital Crime.

Divers Countreys have divers Measures.The Measures of length are found so diversly to vary, that every City and Province is noted almost to have as well a distinct Measure as a distinct Weight, which in themselves oftentimes are found much to differ; and some particular Cities are observed by custom to have divers Measures, for divers sorts of Commodities, as it is seen practised by example in the City of Lon­don, where the Yard is accounted the common Measure for Cloth and Wollen, and Silk, &c. the Ell accounted the common Measure for Linnen, and the Goad for Frizes, Cottons, and the like, which in many other Countries is also observable. [...]ain the first Inventor of Weights and Mea­sures, Jose­phus.And as for Measures in the general, It is a re­ceived Opinion, that the first Measure that was to this end invented was the Cubit, agreeing as some imagine with the half Ell, the which divided into four parts or quarters, and every quar­ter into four inches; peradventure this was in those times a general Rule to all Nations: but Time and Traffick have since given to every Countrey a particular Measure, and therewith a peculiar Law of measuring, which contains a succinct length by it self, which at this day we see practised through most parts of the known World in several ways: and thus diversity of Places gave also diversity of names to their Measures, such as are the Ell, Yard, Goad, Fathom, Cane, Auln, Brace, Pico, Stick, Palm, Vare, Covado, and the like.

Measures of solid Bodies.But Invention by the help and assistance of time, growing more perfect and absolute, and finding that neither Weight nor yet this Measure could extend it self to all Commodities used in and by way of Merchandize; the Art of measuring of solid Bodies became to be hence produced, as we see it in use in the measuring of Timber, Stones, and such like Commodities; neither yet was Commerce satisfied herewith; Measures of dry and li­quid Com­modities.for the ingenious Merchant found it still defe­ctive, and therefore to have it yet more perfect, invented the Art of Concave Measures, that should serve as well for dry as for liquid Commodities, as it is seen practised at this day for Grain, Rice, and such like commodities; and for Oyls, Wines, Waters, Liquors, and such like commo­dities, setting by this way by Art and Invention, in most of these commodities, a concordance of Measure with Weight, as in other commodities was set a Concordance of Weight with Mea­sure: but for as much as this knowledge in the general is of it self too capacious and large to be particularly handled, as the subject requireth, I have been therefore constrained to confine my self to Measures of length only, as being the most necessary part of this MAP of COM­MERCE, yet so as I have not omitted the rest, where they have fallen within the compass of my observation; and if I have therein been found defective, the vastness of the Subject may plead my excuse.

All Mea­sures to the Merchants must be as one MeasureHe then that intendeth by way of Traffick to make use of this Tract, must as well be skill'd in Measures, (as I have observed) as he ought to be in Weights; for he must not only readily know his own Measure as it stands, and is found to be in it self in use, but also the Measure of that place whereto he bendeth his Trade and Negotiation, allowing or deducting by Addition or Substraction where the overplus or want doth challenge a part, to make a due proportion of both, and be so well versed therein, as that all Measures may be to him as one Measure, by a true calculation of the length or the shortness thereof.

All Cities of Trade have sworn and publick Measurers.Again, It is found by the observation of the Merchants, that in all Countries and well-go­verned Cities, there is for the reiglement of things measurable, instituted a publick Measurer, Authorized by the Sovereign Magistrate, who is sworn to decide all Controversies that happen in and about the Art of measuring; to whose honesty and faith is intrusted this publick mea­sure, and to which all Merchants and Traders may in time of need and difference repair and [Page 36]have recourse unto, and by which in many places it is seen that Princes do receive their duty of Customs upon Commodities measurable; and by this common, known, and received publick measure, I have made my Observation in all places, and as near as I could, not only rectified the same in the Agreement thereof with other neighbouring Places and Countreys, but also with our own use in England: and therefore to conclude this Point, I have here inserted the Form of an Instrument, easie to be made, and purposely invented to accord the Measures of any two known Places or Countreys, whether they be Ells, Vares, Yards, Canes, or any other Measure whatsoever.

First then, Learn the order and custom of Measuring of all those sorts of Commodities in both Places which you would inquire after, then prepare a smooth streight Board, Plate, or such like, and draw upon the same a straight line of the length of the Measure in one of the Places with his allowance of Measuring, either an Inch or Shaftnet, or such like; which for Example, I will demonstrate in this Figure, AB. First then, Divide the line AB into four equal parts, which is CDE, and divide the quarter of AC into 250 equal parts and num­ber them from 10 to 10 upwards, making the Print C the 750 part; for the number of parts contained in the other three empty quarters.

Then mark upon the line AB the length of the Measure of the other Place, with his allowance, which is for Example from B to F, be­ing just in the 900 parts; therefore 900 of those Measures in the first Place, make just 1000 of those Measures in the other Place: but if the Measure of the other Place be longer than the Measure of the first place; as for Example: If it were from B to G, then take the di­stance of AG with a Compass, and set one foot in C, and extend the other towards A, which for Example doth come to rest in F, be­ing 150 parts from C; therefore then 1150 Measures of the one place makes just 1000 of the other, by which you may calculate to a lesser proportion; and this is as much as I conceive needful to insert concerning the knowledg of Measures in general, and proceed to the next, which is the knowledg in general of Commodities used by the way of Merchandizing.

CHAP. IX. Of Commodities in general used by the way of Merchandize, and of the knowledg thereof.

Commodi­ties in gene­ral used in Merchandi­zing, and the knowledg thereof.HAving spoken of Cities of Trade in general, as they are distin­guished in these days; and of the Customs more or less, that are imposed (by Princes in all Cities where Trade is practis'd) upon all Commodities used as Merchandize, by such as negotiate and use Traf­fick, and of the Moneys, and current Coins whereby this Trade is driven, with the Weights and Measures whereby the same is distinguished and regulated: the next thing to be handled in order, is the Commodities and Wares themselves, wherewith this Commerce is maintained and practised in every City and Countrey comprised in this MAP; which is the proper thing upon which the said Duties are paid, and for which the said Moneys are seen to be given in Exchange, by the way of buying and selling.

All Commo­dities are ei­ther natural or artificial.All Commodities then that are used as Merchandizes by Traders and Merchants, may properly be distinguished into two kinds; and are either Natural or Artificial Commodities; Natural commodi­ties. Natural Com­modities I call such as the Earth or Creatures, either with or without the labour and Industry of man doth doth naturally produce of themselves: of which kinds are Wines, Oyls, Cottons, Wools, Fruit, Grain, raw Silk, Spices, Drugs, Gems, Gold, Silver, and the like.

Artificial commodi­ties. Artificial Commodities, I call such as are either wrought or perfected by Art or Mystery, of which kind are all Fabricks of either Woollen, Linnen, Silk, and also the Commodities of all Manual Crafts, this day seen practised through the World in sundry Countreys, within the compass of which two sorts may all Wares and all things used as Commodities be com­prised.

Again, both the Natural and Artificial Commodities may be distinguished into two other sorts [Page 37]and kinds, which are either such as are staple and lasting Commodities, or impairing and decaying Commodities.

Staple com­modities.The staple and lasting Commodities I call such as indure at all times, and continue for ever in their true estate and first condition of goodness, never decaying, nor never losing their ver­tue and quality: and of this kind are Gems, Gold, Silve,, Copper, Brass, Lead, Iron, Steel, and the like.

Decaying commodi­ties.The impairing and decaying Commodities I call such as are either subject to corruption, or to leakage, and do lose and decay either by long lying, or by keeping, as are the Fruits of the Earth Corn, Wines, Oyls, Currants, Figs, Fish, and the like.

The infinite variety of which passeth any one mans judgment perfectly to know and distin­guish, because that Nature and Art in all Countries and Places brings into the World such change and diversity, in place, time, use and quality in all Professions, that it were a work endless to set down the natures, conditions and properties thereof; therefore it hath content­ed me in all Countries and Cities here collected, to nominate only the Commodities that the places are observed to afford, either Natural or Artificial, either Staple or Perishable, wherewith Mer­chants are found to negotiate, and upon which it is found that a Custom is imposed by Princes, and by them satisfied accordingly.

And yet forasmuch as many of these Commodities herein named and found throughout the World, may seem strange to some not well versed in the general knowledge thereof; and yet this knowledge so necessary to all that profess Merchandizing, I hold it not improper here, not only to add a word or two, conducing to this so needful a skill, but also to the preservation and true keeping thereof in their prime goodness and beauty.

He that intendeth then by his Pen to teach the Theorique of this mysterious part of Com­merce, must needs come short of his aim: I hope I may therefore be well excused if I ap­pear defective herein, for I know it is practice and daily use that maketh a man skill'd in this Art; and many lets and impediments appear daily in many men, that hinder the true attainment thereof: for it must needs be granted, that he that is imperfect in any one natural Sense, or wants those helps that Nature affords to perfect minds, must neither be a Merchant, nor yet addict himself to this knowledge: for any one Sense being either depraved or defective in part or in whole, will inforce him to commit (against his will and mind) many Errors, and constrain him to take the bad for good, or (at leastwise) the bad as soon as the good; and sometimes (as we say) Chalk for Cheese, or one thing for another: All commo­dities are known by the Senses.for Experience tells us, That all Commodities are not learned by one Sense alone, though otherwise never so perfect; nor yet by two, but sometimes by three, sometimes by four, and sometimes by all: and yet this Art is now adays come to that height, (I may say) to that height of cunning, that all these are lit­tle enough too.

But in general it must be granted, That the Eye above all the rest of the Senses, still claim­eth an especial interest and prerogative herein, and must ever be admitted as one of the chief­est that must still accompany the rest in this distinction, and therefore many things are often­times found saleable that are pleasing thereto; and in some Commodities the same is noted to have the whole stroke, and only to give the judgment, as in all manner of Colours, and such like things depending thereupon.

Some are noted again to require the Sense of Feeling to be assistful to the Eye, as where the Hand is of necessity to be employed, as is seen in Cloth and such Commodities. Some require the Sense of Hearing, as where the Ear giveth a help to the Eye, as is seen in some Metals, Minerals, and such like: and some again require the Sense of Smelling, as where the Nose helpeth the Eye, as is seen in some Drugs, Perfumes, and the like; and lastly, some require the Sense of Tasting, as where the Palate giveth the help, as is seen in Spi­ces, Wines, Oyls, and many such Commodities, A principal part of Mer­chandise consists in the know­ledg of com­modities.where it is to be noted, that in this know­ledg doth consist much the Art of Merchandizing, a principal part of which Profession is pro­perly to know and learn the same; and therefore a Merchants judgment must not be limit­ed within the compass of any one particular Trade or Vocation: for herein must his Mystery, Skill and Art exceed all other, as requiring by necessity a more general knowledg than any other Tradesman; from whom there can be expected no more, than a skill in those Commodities they challenge a property or right by Trade unto, or as appertaining particularly to their pecu­liar Profession and Calling.

A Merchant must be seen in all com­modities.This is manifest in many Tradesmen, as in the Goldsmith, whose knowledg is confined in Silver, and Gold, and in the goodness, fineness, and quality thereof: In the Jeweller, whose know­ledge is confined in Gems and Pretious Stones: in the Clothiers, to their Clothing, in the Drug­sters to their Drugs; in the Grocer to his Spices; and so generally in all others: But the Mer­chaet, whose judgment must be larger, must have skill in all, and have a general inspection in every part and member or each of them, as being only branches of his unlimited know­ledg; which is not confineable to Commodities and Wares of value and consequence only, but [Page 38]also to the Wares of the meanest Artificer; so that in this point his Art may be compared to the Poets, whose excellency must consist in a cursory Judgment in all Sciences, and to learned in all Professions, the difference being, that the Merchants skill must be real, solid and substantial, and the Poets may be feigned and Poetical.

And in all Trades.Therefore both the natural and artificial Commodities must be comprehended within the cir­cuit of his Judgment, and into all Trades he ought to have a general insight, as with the Fisher­man, he must dive into the Deep, and know all sorts of Merchantablish, as Ling, Cod, Haber­dine, Herrings, Pilchards, Salmons, Eels, how caught, and how preserved, and the proper sea­son for the same.

With the Husbandman and Labourer, he must have insight in the Harvest of the Earth, and know all Commodities that the same is found naturally to afford for Merchandize, as all man­ner of Corn, Grain, or Pulse; the Vintages for all manner of Wines, the Recoltoes for all man­ner of Oyls, Cottons, Currants, Figs, Raisins, and other Fruit of the Earth, how and when the same is gathered, and how and by what means the same is kept and preserved: with the Shepherd, to know all manner of Wools; with the Woodman to know all manner of Tim­ber, and all circumstances thereto belonging; and to conclude, his skill and inspection must be such, that it extend it self from the Commodities belonging to the meanest Artificer, to the Commodities belonging to the most eminent Shop-keeper, which I neither know, nor yet am able in all necessary Points to learn; but especially so much of this knowledge must not be omit­ted as cometh within the compass of that place, wherein and whereunto the Merchant resideth or bendeth his Trade and Adventures.

A Merchant must know the value of all the Com­modities, and all other circumstan­ces thereof.Neither yet must his knowledge rest it self here upon the consideration of the meer good­ness of Commodities, but must also extend it self to the consideration of the true worth and value thereof, both in the price and in the esteem; and also know how the same is both re­quested and spent, and how Imported, and how exported, either for Use or for Ornament, from one Countrey and place to another; together with the due circumstances of Times and Seasons, when this Vent or Sale presenteth, and when the same is out of use and not demand­ed: also when sign of plenty doth offer it self, and when of scarcity; when of rising and when of falling; what Commodities in themselves naturally are friends, and sympathize in the Shipping, and will indure packing, binding, and stowage together; and which again have a secret antipathy, and will perish and consume each other; all which circumstances I have at large handled in a Tract, which I have called The Merchants Magazine, which I may hereafter publish, if I find this my Labour prove acceptable to Merchants.

Merchants should re­duce this knowledge of Commo­dities to pro­fit.Moreover, all Merchants endeavouring to obtain this exquisiteness, should not be satisfied with a naked skill and knowledge in these Commodities thus belonging to other mens Professions; but their main scope and aim should be to make this knowledge and skill profitable and bene­ficial unto them, as by Exporting the superfluous Commodities of one Countrey at a plentiful Season of either Harvest, Recolto, or Vintage to another place or Kingdom, where either nature, scarcity, the curiosity, pride, sloth, or necessity of the Inhabitants challengeth a supply or stand in need of, which must be done with many advised circumstances. First, In that consideration must be had as well to the place as to the time, as well in the Importation as in the Exportation; and to the property and fitness of both the place and time; for all Commodities are not transpor­table at all Seasons, nor yet every Season fit for every Commodity; some Commodities require Winter and cold Seasons for Transportations, and some again require Summer and warmer wea­ther; and in the fitness of the place a judicious Eye is to be had, and the same to be done with a great deal of providence and circumspection, observing well the nature and the property of the place, whither the same is to be Imported, and whence Exported, and not as that Dutch Merchant is said unfitly to have done, that carried Fish to Rame at Easter, or Shooe-horns and Hats to Constantinople, or as we commonly say, Coals to New-Castle, where great quantities are daily digged up and vented thence to all parts of the World.

Merchants should know how to pre­serve all commodi­ties.And for as much as Merchants find not at all times, a present Vent and Sale for their Commo­dities, according to their mind, and to a contented profit, therefore their knowledge must yet extend it self so far, as that they know how the same is both to be preserved and kept, from either spoyling or perishing; for Experience shews, that almost every several Commodity doth demand almost a several and different way of preservation and keeping, that the same may continue and hold its prime vertue, worth, and goodness, both in colour, substance, and beau­ty; and also know what may be opposite thereto, and incident either to spoil, hurt, harm, or prejudice it; for first, some Commodities are observed to be best preserved dry, as is seen in some sorts of Spices, Drugs, Sugars, raw Silks, and such like; and these require a dry, close Ware-house, or Magazine for stowage thereof; some are found to be best preserved by lying close without air or vent, as some Wines, some Fruits, and such like; and some are observed to be best preserved by moisture and no air, as Tobacco, Civet, Musk, Verdigreese, and such like; and so in some other Commodities, which do also differ in respect of the place; some Commodi­ties [Page 39]requiring low and close Cellerage, and some high and airy Ware-houses, &c. all which things are considerable in the housing and keeping of Wares and Commodities, and necessary to be known, lest that by ignorance a damage be sustained in staying for a Market, or a fit or more proper season for the sale and vent thereof.

Merchants should know how to bet­ter their Commodi­ties.Neither is it sufficient that a Merchant do know how to preserve his Wares and Commodities in their first splendor, goodness, and virtue, but their skill must extend, if possible, to give it new vigour, life, strength and beauty, being either by casualty or time, dead or faded, dying or perishing, which though in some Commidities it may (in some sort) be performed, yet in all Commodities it is a matter not only unprobably, but utterly impossible to be in any manner of ways effected; for this only secret, if any where it were to be learned, would prove a most profitable knowledge, and worth the learning, and a Mystery, that would too soon enrich Trades-men and Merchants. Yet some such there be their Arts-Masters, who before they will throw away their Goods, when either they are in part decaying, or totally perishing, will try many ways and conclusions to rectifie the default and defects thereof; sometimes by Commix­rures, Compositions, and helps, adding excellent good to the very worst, or sweet to four, or one colour to another; as is imagined is too oftentimes practised by the Art of the Vintuer, in his old perished or pallid Wines. Others again by changing the Objects, turning one Die into another, as it is conceived is daily practised by Mercers, and others, by new dying of spot­ted Stuffs and Silks: many such ways being practised, which the ingenious head and hand of the Arts-man hath found out, and invented, to save, preserve, maintain, and sometimes to vestore a Commodity that is wasting and perishing, which I refer to those that are more skilful therein.

How a Mer­chant may have know­ledg in all Commodi­ties.Now the last point resting to conclude this Chapter, is to shew briefly how this knowledge first spoken of in Commodities may be gained and acquired, which doubtless is best done by Experience, the true Mother of Knowledge; and this Experience is best gotten by often viewing the same, and heedfully marking the Qualities and Properties thereof, and especially the best and principal of each sort, that a man would be expert in; to which end, it is ever good to pro­cure and keep Patterns and Samples, and thereby so imprint the very Idea thereof in a man's mind, that at the sight of the like or equal, the same may instantly be known and discerned; Merchants to write down their Observati­ons upon Commodi­ties.and the sooner to obtain this knowledge, a man that would learn, must be very inquisitive of men of Experience that are able to instruct in the Commodities required, and learn from such what is the principal notes requisite thereunto, either in their colours, goodness, substance, virtue, taste, see­ing, or feeling: and what he hath thus learned and gained, to take order never to forget, by committing the same to writing, and therewith to note the signs and marks of the goodness and badness of all those Commodities that a man doth either deal in, or would learn to know; and to make this knowledge the more compleat, to note down therewith all manner of charges inci­dent thereto, and that grow in that place upon the same, with the ordinary price which there it doth commonly bear and hold; and though these notes should either by haste or mis-informa­tion be at the first rude, and undigested, or though many should prove frivolous and to little pur­pose, it matters not much; the one sort may soon be better ordered, and the other may as ea­sily be rejected; his better knowledge, and a little consideration may amend both these defects; my reason for the same is, that the use and custom of noting in this manner, will make a man (espe­cially young beginners) more skilful and ready in this knowledge in a year, than he that taketh on­ly a bare, idle, and superficial view, shall be in his whole life-time; for it must needs be granted, that it both perfecteth skill, and helpeth memory, which is the only means hereto, and by gra­ving deeper impressions in a man's mind, inforce him, will he, nill he, to a more considerate and judicious observation, and marking thereof; whenas he hath thus absolutely tied himself to a necessity of setting down every Commodity, and each particular circumstance in this man­ner thereto belonging. And this being as much as I think needful to insert, concerning this point in general, I will proceed to the next and last, which is of Exchanges practised amongst Merchants in the Art of Merchandizing.

CAAP. X. Of Exchanges in general, used by Merchants in this MAP of COMMERCE.