The First Discourse;

What think you, Sophronius, of the Way used now adays to bring up Youth? Sophronius. 'Tis doubtless an odd kind of way; and, if Men be out in any Thing, 'tis in this. For 'tis undeniably true, that Children are brought up like Slaves till they come to the age of fourteen or fifteen years, or there­abouts. And what for? to make them learn, against the grain, perhaps a mouth-full [Page 2]of Latin. For of a hundred Scholars that spend the prime of their Age in this Torture, I dare affirm there is not the tenth part that after seven years Apprenticeship can justly boast to have conquered that Language.

'Tis true enough, and I found it so by my own experience. They pester Youth with a pack of hard Words and Rules that confound their Memory, and stun their little Intellectu­als, and all this under the Standart of the Rod. For my part, I am quite besotted with it, and with much ado shall I come to my self again.

Thus they make of a fine Language, the Terrour and the Plague of Youth; Who, be­ing incapable of apprehending the beauty there­of, look upon it as a meer Scare-crow. The Reason is, because they are put upon it before their Memory be strong enough to retain so many strange words, and their Judgement ripe enough to apprehend the abstruse meaning of the Rules. For it is not with the Latin Tongue as with Vulgar Languages, which are learnt with much less difficulty, because usually spo­ken; Whereas the Latin Tongue (as it is used now adays in England especially) is in a man­ner but a Language for Books.

What course then, my dear Sophronius, would you have one to takes?

This in my judgment would be the most proper way. After that a young Lad has learnt to Read and Write, and that he is pretty well instructed in the fundamental [Page 3]points of the Religion wherein he was born, I would have him put upon some easie, plea­sant, and useful Science, until his Judgment were ripe for the Latin Tongue.

What is that you would have him learn?

The State and History of the World, and particularly of his own native Country. A thing so easie to learn, that it is not at all in­consistent with his tender Years. So pleasant, and so full of charming Variety, that he can­not but be taken with it. And withall so use­ful, that he would lay this up as a Treasure to be used in his riper Years. Thus I would have him to apply himself to two Things, Geography and History. Geography, that would shew him the Extent of the habitable World, it's Continents, Islands, States, and Provinces, Towns and Cities, its famous Moun­tains, Seas, Lakes, Rivers, and other Curio­sities. By History he should see the different manner of living amongst Men, their several Languages, Religions, and Governments, to­gether with the various Changes and Revolu­tions of States.

Oh! had I but taken this course. I should not have been laugh'd at, as I was not long since in a Company, for confounding (by meer Ignorance) Swethland, with Switzerland. I should not be puzzled, as I am, reading, the Gazette, to know whether such a Place lies North or South, and whither it is in Spain or Moscovy. This is not all. I am so little acquaint­ed [Page 4]with the publick Concerns of the World, that I am quickly mumped, when there arises any Discourse of that kind in Company.

Thus it is to be ill brought up in his Youth. For my part, I cannot conceive how any man that pretends to good Education, can be so narrow-Soul'd as to live in this World as if it were all shut up in his Neighbour-hood; nor how he can be satisfied, if he read either History or Forreign News, without some Knowledge of those Places which happen to be there mentioned.

The Truth is, without it one is but half an Historian; and to live in the World without a competent knowledge of the same, is properly to see no further than his Nose, and not to know whereabouts one is. This is, I confess, my Case; and truly I blush at it. But, if ever I have a Son to bring up, I am resol­ved it shall not be so with him

Thus where a Young Man has made a considerable Progress both in Geography and History (wherein young people take delight) I would have him disposed of for the Latin Tongue, especially if his Fancy should lead him to it.

But can no Expedient be found out to learn it in less time, and with less trouble, than now they do in Schools?

Do you doubt it? I'll tell you of one which I think is very likely. Instead of so many Latin Schools which swarm every [Page 5]where, and where so much precious Time is lost by reason of their tedious and lingring Methods, (beneficial indeed to School-Ma­sters) there should be in every Province some Colleges erected, where nothing but Latin should be commonly spoken. For, when all is done, the quickest and best way to learn a Language is not so much by the eye as by the ear. And what makes us conquer vulgar Languages so much sooner than the Latin Tongue, but that those are spoken, and this is not, in England especially?

'Tis true. But to what purpose shall one learn to speak a Language so little in use here, except to understand Books?

I confess the speaking Part is so much out of date here, even amongst the greatest Scholars in the Land, that Strangers are in a maze to see Men of such a profound Learning as we have here in England, speak Latin with so much hesitancy. Latin that should be by right the general and standing Language for Scholars of any Nation to converse in toge­ther. But 'tis no wonder, if we consider how this Language is taught in Latin-Schools, where the very Masters speak as little Latin, and deli­ver themselves as much in English as they can. Whereas, if they did use their Scholars as well to the Speaking as the Reading Part, it would not only forward their Learning, but also make them fit to converse in that Lan­guage. And, though the speaking Latin is not [Page 6]altogether; so much abroad since the French Tongue came up, as it has been formerly; yet it may fall out that a Traveller shall stand in need of Latin, where French is not so much in request.

In short, I perceive you would have one learn Latin, by using himself to speak it; because you conceive it is the readiest Way.

Right. And to that purpose the fore­said Colleges should be provided of able and skilful Masters, such as should have absolute­ly the command of die Latin Tongue.

But you will grant, Sophronius, that the greatest benefit of that Language doth lye in the Reading Part.

I grant it.

Now the Question is, whether speak­ing nothing but Latin in the Schools would advance the Reading Part so considerably as you imagine. For you know the style of most Latin Writers is very different from any thing of a speaking style.

'Tis true. But still the speaking part, I hope, would be no hindrance. And, when all is done, the Speaker has this advantage, that he practices his Language two ways, that is by Reading and Speaking; but the Reader, only by Reading.

There you are in the right. Now let us see how you would order your Colleges.

In the first place I would have them all to be Boarders that should come to any of them.

But then poor Parents should be de­prived of the Advantage of bringing up their Children to Scholar ship.

So much the better. For many of them undo themselves utterly that way; and, when all comes to all, their Children are of­ten forced to leave off, for want of Help. And then what signifies their long strugling, toiling, and moiling after a thing they could not com­pass, but only to make their Lives the more uncomfortable ? Whereas, had they learnt a good Trade, they might live comfortably, and perhaps get enough besides to give their Chil­dren a good Education. And so they should not have occasion to repine at their loss of Time and Money, and to be justly grieved for ha­ving took so much pains about a thing which now is to be forgotten.

Learning is Chargeable, and the Harvest does not always answer to the Seeding. 'Tis I confess, a great Ornament and Advantage to Persons of Honour and Estates, who are best able to make a good Use of it, and to keep up its Reputation. But amongst Men whose whole Dependance is Learning, and who are fain to drive a Trade of it, it loses its Credit, and grows a very Drug. I appeal to these Times, now we see whole Sholes of poor distressed Scholars treading upon one anothers heels, and who going along may well use Bi­as his saying, Omnia mecum porto, I carry with me all I have. What makes them so [Page 8]cheap, despicable, and ridiculous, apt every foot to be trampled upon by Brutish and In­sulting Ignorance, but naked and hungry Po­verty? And what makes their Poverty but their excessive Number?

Poverty, the General Scare-crow of Man­kind, the fear of which keeps Men in a per­petual Motion, and makes them run head­long into the greatest Dangers,

‘ Per Mare Pauperiem fugiunt, per Saxa, per Ignes.’

Poverty, a lingring kind of Death, that having once seized upon a Mans Spirits dejects and stupifies him, takes away the edge of his Senses, weakens his Memory, discomposes his Mind, and makes, him almost uncapable of any Thing. Poverty, in a Word, that makes men Ridiculous; and so Juvenal has it,

Here's the greatest Mischief of Poverty, It turns Men into ridicule.

I do acknowledge what you say to be true. But, if the Sovereign, or any Rich Per­son well-disposed, had a mind to Found a Col­lege or more for the Education of a certain number of poor Peoples Children, would not you approve of it?

I should not at all dislike it, provi­ded that (according to the Jesuits way) none should be admitted therein but ingeni­ous, witty, and hopeful Lads.

Put the case then, Sophronius, that your Proposals were approved of by the Publick, how would you order your Scholars For those that come in must speak some Language or other. Now 'tis supposed they cannot speak Latin, for they come hither to learn it; and, if they speak another Tongue, 'tis contrary to your own Proposition.

To answer your Objection, I confess that, to compass our Design, it were conve­nient that such as should be first admitted in­to a College should have already some smat­tering of the, Latin Tongue. Which the Ma­sters might easily and in a short time im­prove to some degree of Perfection, by con­versing with them in Latin, and using them to speak nothing else. And, after the first Comers, none should be admitted in, that did not understand some Latin Words, such as may be got by a good Vocabulary; and some familiar Dialogues, like those of Corderius. Thus their Tongues being untied by these pre­vious Helps, one word would help out ano­ther; and conversing with none but such as speak Latin, Necessity would breed Attention, as Attention doth Learning. And so I am con­fident, that in a years time they would be as forward as those that have lingered four or five years at School.

Thus far I am satisfied. But Would not you have them to make use of the Gram­mar?

By all means. For, though by Rote one may learn a Language with ease, yet a Grammar is of great use to to confirm that Learning. By that one learns it easily, and by this exactly.

You put me in mind, Sophronius, of a Young man that I was told of 'tother day; who had been several years in France, where he had learnt the French Tongue in its Purity, but only by Rote. He came back to England, where he was very much admired for his French. But he had not been here above three Months, when he began to confound the Tenses of Verbs, the Gender of Nouns, and to make strange Anglicisms.

All this happen'd for want of Gram­mar-help. And therefore there should be for our Colleges a compendious Grammar, such as might be run over in a short time. Bur, be­cause the main difficulty of the Latin Tongue in the Reading of Authors doth consist in the Construction, the Learners should be used frequently to that, is also to make Paraphra­ses. By this means I am confident that a Boy should know Latin enough at a years end to learn the Greek Tongue, and that in three years at farthest he might be fitted for the U­niversity.

That indeed were a fine Business. But there should be very strict Orders kept in those Colleges, and the Collegers should have but little Correspondence with the rest of the World.

Very right. And truly there's no­thing so mischievous and fatal to young Gen­tlemen as the want of that Coercion for some time. For, whilst they are allowed to ap­pear in publick with a Splendor sutable to their Birth, they meet with that Respect and those Caresses from their Inferiours that fills their minds presently with Pride and Vanity. Their eyes are ever admiring of fine Garbs, their Ears bewitched with the charming noise of the great Estates and Honours they are Heirs to, their Fancy's tickled with the flat­tering expressions of Servants and others that are apt to adore a rising Sun. Thus my young Gentleman hardly feels himself for joy, and his soft heart swells daily like Puff-past. Till at last he grows too stiff to be curbed; and, instead of a pliant Willow, he proves a stub­born Oak. He becomes Impatiens Jugi; and, though perhaps he never learn'd to Obey, yet he thinks it long till he Rules. His Lust is the only thing he is resolved to inslave himself to, he runs wherever that hurries him, and ne­ver thinks it far enough. But one step into Learning puts his Body and Soul out of Joint Learning, pedantick Learning, why should he trouble himself with it? He is Learned enough [Page 12]that is Rich, and that knows how to improve sensual and bruitish Pleasures. And so there's my Midas, with his Asses Ears.

You have hit the Nail on the head. And without doubt it were the best way to keep such young men in the dark as much as possible, till they have discretion and learning enough to appear in publick, and so take ad­vantage of such Companies as be fittest for them to improve themselves by. But still it will be objected, that a young Man in this Condition will go near to forget his Mother-Tongue; and that, being kept from People of good fashion, he will grow thereby so bashful that he will hardly dare to peep into the World.

No such thing. For first, as to his forgetting of his Mother-Tongue, he will ne­ver so forget it but that he will quickly be able to recover it. But however, to prevent chat In­conveniency, I would allow my young Gen­tlemen the receiving of Visits from their Friends and Relations in the Holy-days. And besides, there might be an Academy set up for every College, to learn in English at set hours, these Exercises so fit for a Gentleman; viz. Fencing, Riding the great Horse, Dan­cing, &c. Now, to answer the other part of your Objection, a short time will make a bash­ful Young Man forward enough to appear in Company. If one has but wherewithal to ap­pear in a good Garb, there is in Man an infal­lible principle of Vanity that will help to put him forward.

[Page 13]

In fine, I would have the Masters of every College to be themselves well bred and polite, of a sweet and genteel Conversation, and as little pedantick as might be. For it is most certain, that Pedantry, as well as Po­verty, has brought a great disrepute up­on Learning.

You say right. But I have one Ob­jection more to make you.

What is that, Philalethes?

The newness of the Thing, that will scarce be acceptable to so many Admirers of old Methods; who would think their Chil­dren undone, if they went never so little out of the old Road. And this their Prejudice (you must think) will be back'd by those Persons whose Interest it is to keep up the Mo­dern way of Schooling.

I have only delivered my Opinion, and given Reasons for it. Which I shall back with Monsieur Montagne's Exemple, who bad the fortune to learn the Latin Tongue much after this manner. If what, I have said be re­lished, I am satisfied: If not, I must be con­tented.

For my part, I like it extremely well. And, to conclude our present Discourse, let me beg a favour of you.

Pray, what is that?

I am so taken with the Thoughts of Geography, that I am absolutely resolved to learn it; and I must beg your Assistance in it.

You shall have it, Philalethes, for I think nothing too much for your Service. And I am much mistaken, if you do not find it as pleasant and useful a piece of Learning as any yon can fix upon.

I do not doubt it in the least, dear So­phronius. And I am resolved so to give my mind to it, that I hope in a short time to be too hard for those who jeered me lately for want of skill in it.

The Second Discourse.

What do you think of it now, Philalethes? are you still of the same mind as to Geography?

You cannot Imagine how eager I am for it, and methinks the whole World it self is not able to satisfie me. In short, I look up­on my self as a Citizen of the World, and I will know of what Latitude my Right is.

Softly, Philalethes, softly▪ You will find the World big enough, I warrant you.

Let us leave, I pray, this Prologue, and enter upon the Matter. Come on, I long [Page 15]to Travel the world about. Shew me the way, and I mall follow you.

But what do you mean by the World?

I mean the Land of the Living, or the habitable World.

Why do not you count the Hea­vens and the Air part of the World?

Yes sure, when I mean the whole Fa­brick of the World.

Now you must know the Descripti­on of the whole World together is called Cos­mography. Whereas the proper Object of Geography is only the Terrestrial Globe, which consists of the Earth and Waters.

Pray tell me then, Sophronius, in the first place, whether you think the World had a beginning or no, or that (according to some Philosophers) it is from all Eternity.

I believe rather, according to the Holy Writ, that it was Created (or made of nothing) some thousand years ago by that Supreme and Spiritual Being we Worship, an Immortal, Immutable, Incomprehensible, All-Wise, and All-mighty God.

How many thousand years do you reckon it since the Creation?

We reckon it commonly 3949, years from the Creation to our Saviour's Coming upon Earth. To which if you add 1681. years since Christ's Coming, the whole amounts to 5630 years. Thus much for the Origine of [Page 16]the World, now let us explain (if you will) the Parts thereof.

That I wait for with great Impati­ency.

Well. But the Question is, whether you mean to be a Cosmographer, or simply a Geographer?

That I leave to you, Sophronius.

Come on then, Philalethes. We are going to begin a great Voyage, and vie must take off our Minds from the Earth to raise them as far as Heaven.

For my own particular, I shall sore up as high as I can.

To say nothing of the Empyreal Heaven (the highest, largest, and most; Glo­rious Heaven, supposed to be reserved for the happy Mansion of the Blessed) the Astrono­mers reckon ten several Spheres or Orbs, all contained one within another. The highest of which is called Primum Mobile, or the first Moveable, which carry's all the lesser Orbs contained within and under it about from East to West, and so to the East again, in the space of twenty four hours, or one whole day. Next to this Orb is the Chrystalline Heaven, thought by some to be that which appears so pure blew unto our sight. Below this Orb is that which contains all the fixed Stars in it, and is called the Firmament. To which succeed the seven several Orbs of the Planets; the highest of which is Saturn, then Jupiter, Mars, Sol, [Page 17]or the Sun, Venus, Mercury, Luna, or the Moon Which that it may the better occur to your Memory, do but mind this Latin Verse,

‘Post SIM SUM sequitur, ultima Luna subest.’

For the three Letters of SIM serve to de­note severally Saturn, Jupiter, Mars; and the three Letters of SUM, Sol; Venus, Mercury.

But which are those you call the fixed Stars?

A Numberless Number of Stars, con­tained in the eighth Orb; and called fixed Stars, not that they be immovable, but be­cause their natural Motion is but flow, and that they keep always the same distance. Which the Planets do not.

But there is besides a visible Difference be­twixt the fixed Stars and the Planets. For it is proper for the fixed Stars to sparkle, or shine with a trembling light, but chiefly in a Serene weather. Whereas the Planets, as the Moon among others, send forth steady beams, and void of all vibration. Except Mars, Ve­nus, and Mercury, which are observed some­times to sparkle; but neither so much, nor so constantly, as the fixed Stars.

But how long do you think, Philalethes, that the fixed Stars are finishing their natural Course?

A long time, sure enough, if their Motion be so slow, as you said before.

According to Tycho Brahe, the Won­der of our Age in point of Astronomy, they are no less than 25412. years before they come to their first station. And yet in his Cal­culation he falls very much short of Plato, who reckoned it 49000. years, which therefore was called the Platonick Year. And, accor­ding to the Opinion of those Times, that Year being expired, the World is to begin anew in the same Manner, and under the very same Circumstances as formerly.

What? Then at that rate I must about 49000. years hence return into my Mothers Womb, be new-born, suck, go to School, and there be soundly lashed again. Then you and I, after that vast distance of time, shall meet here, and hold the same Discourses we do now. A pretty Conceit indeed! But, if a Man has got an imperious Scold, or a Wanton Flurt, to his Wife, is he to have her again?

The very same, according to that great Philosopher Plato.

So Socrates must have his Xantippe a­gain, and Octavius his Messalina. 'Tis a hard fate, and for my part (if I were to choose) I had rather lay for ever in the Dust. In the mean time I know not what to think of it. There is no new Occurrence whatsoever, but what I fancy to have been so a long time since.

A little matter, I see, would inveigle you into that Opinion; especially if one should [Page 19]prove it by Scripture, as by these. Words of the Wise, that there is no new Thing under the Sun. But I would not have you, Philale­thes, to be too much affected with it. And let us now proceed to a Survey of those fixed Stars which the Ancients took special notice of.

Which are those, I pray, dear Sophronius.

They reckoned 1022. of them in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere, the least of which is eighteen times bigger than the Earth. And, that they might be convenient­ly discerned from one another, they reduced them to forty eight Signs or Constellations, and gave them severally the Names of Living Creatures and other Things to which they fanci­ed them most like. Twelve of these, being the chiefest, are found in the Zodiack; 21. in the Northern Hemisphere; and fifteen in the Southern. To which last Frederick Houtman has added since thirteen more, discovered by him while he was in Sumatra.

The Twelve chief Constellations, otherwise called the Signs of the Zodiack, or the Twelve Houses of the Sun, are as followeth, with their several Figures, so much used by Astrologers.

Viz.

• Aries, ♈.
• Taurus, ♉.
• Gemini, ♊.
• Cancer; ♋.
• Leo, ♌.
• Virgo, ♍.
• Libra, ♎.
• Scorpio, ♏.
• Sagittarius, ♐.
• Capricornus, ♑.
• Aquarius, ♒.
• Pisces, ♓.

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I shall pass by the other Constellations, both for brevity sake, and because they are of less use.

But what's the meaning of that large, whitish, and bright Tract of the Sky so obser­vable in a clear Night?

I suppose you mean that which the Greeks called [...], the Latines Via lactea, and We from thence the Milky Way. 'Tis nothing else but a great Multitude of little Stars gathered together in this part of the Sky, which give but a confused Light, and are not discernable to the eye but with a pro­spective-glass.

But how comes it, Sophronius, that in a clear. Winter-night we see in and about the Constellations an infinite number of lesser Stars, which are hardly seen at all in Summer time?

Because in Winter time the Nights are darker, and so any thing of light is the more conspicuous and obvious to the eye.

Now you must know, Philalethes, that the Astronomers divide the biggest and brightest of the fixed Stars into six several Degrees of Magnitude. And they reckon fifteen of the first Rank, forty five of the second, two hun­dred and five of the third, four hundred and seventy seven of the fourth, two hundred and seventeen of the fifth, and forty nine of the sixth. To which if you add besides five Cloudy, and nine Dark, you will find the compleat [Page 21]Number aforesaid of one thousand twenty two.

Those of the first Magnitude are reckoned to be each of them an hundred and seven times bigger than the Earth; those of the se­cond Magnitude, ninety times; of the third, seventy two times; of the fourth, fifty six; of the fifth, twenty six; and of the sixth, eigh­teen.

Thus much for the fixed Stars. Now let us come to the seven Planets, whose Names fol­low here according to their respective height, with their several Figures as they are used by Astrologers.

Viz.

• Saturn, ♄.
• Jupiter, ♃.
• Mars, ♂.
• Sol, ☽.
• Venus, ♁.
• Mercury, ☿.
• Luna, ☽.

How come they to be called Pla­nets?

They are called Planets, that is, wandring Stars, not that they be subject to any uncertain or irregular Motion; but be­cause they have, either in respect to them­selves or the fixed Stars, a different Motion, and that they are not always at an equal di­stance from each other.

But the Copernicans deny the Sun to be a [Page 22]Planet, and will have it to be a fixed Star. And, whereas we say the Sun turns about the Earth; they hold quite contrary, that the Earth turns about the Sun. I suppose you have heard of this Opinion by the by, and (for ought I know) it may be true enough. But we will not insist upon it.

Shall I now tell you the several (but prodigi­ous) Distances of the Planets from us? You will be amazed at it. But thus we have it from ap­proved Astronomers. Saturn is fourteen Mil­lions of Leagues distant from us; Jupiter, eight Millions of Leagues; Mars, twelve hundred thousand; Sol, or the Sun, eleven hundred thousand; Venus, a hundred and sixty seven thousand; Mercury, sixty four thousand; and Luna, or the Moon, betwixt thirty and forty thousand Leagues. And yet the Planets are nearer than any of the fixed Stars.

This is past any mans Belief but an A­stronomers. But, if it be so, sure these Celestial Bodies must be of a vast Magnitude to be seen at such a distance.

The Sun, which is counted by much the largest of all the Planets, is by some re­ported to be two hundred times at least big­ger than the Earth; and by the most mode­rate, a hundred and sixty six times. Then they make Jupiter ninety five times at least bigger than the Earth; and Saturn, ninety times▪ Mars they reckon to be one [Page 23]third part bigger than the Earth; Venus lesser by thirty seven times; the Moon, by thirty nine times; but they make Mercury much les­ser.

Pray, what Planet is that you call Venus?

The same which is more commonly known by the name of Morning-Star in the Morning, and of Evening-Star in the Even­ing.

But how comes it, Sophronius, that whilst the Sun appears above our Horizon, none of the other Planets, and indeed no Star, is seen?

The Reason is plain. For a greater Light drowns a lesser; and the Sun, being as it were the source of Light, must needs have a greater proportion of it than any of the Stars.

Are you then of Opinion, that the Stars have no Light of their own?

I do not say so. But it is credibly thought, they borrow the greatest part of their Light from the Sun. And therefore it seems that God has placed the Sun in the midst of the Planets, that those above and be­neath it might equally partake of its Splendor.

So much for that, Sophronius; I desire now to understand their Motion.

To clear this Point, you must know that those Philosophers who hold the Sun moves about the Earth (which is the vulgar [Page 24]Opinion) suppose two several Motions of the Stars in general. The one Natural or Pro­per, from West to East; and the other Violent from East to West. And they attribute the Cause of this last Motion, as I have already hinted, to the great Orb called Primum Mobi­le, which turns from East to West round the World with an equal rapidity with­in the space of twenty four hours, and with it hurries away all the lesser Orbs. Which is ob­servable in the Sun particularly.

Whereas, according to the Natural Motion of the Stars from West to East, 'tis to be ob­served amongst the Planets, That cold Saturn does not finish its Course but within the Com­pass of almost thirty years; bright Jupiter fi­nishes his in about twelve years; fiery Mars, within little less than two years; the Sun in one year; fair Venus, in one year and a half; Mercury, in something less than half a year; the Moon, in twenty seven days and about eight hours.

I do not understand these contrary Motions. It is apparent, as you say, that the Sun moves daily from East to West, and so goes round about the World. But how can it at the same time move by a proper motion of its own a quite contrary way, that is, from West to East? How can any thing go back­ward and forward at the same time? This is past my Understanding.

Do but suppose a small Fly upon a Globe to run through the Ecliptick Line, which shews the proper Motion of the Sun.

What then, Sophronius?

Then turn the Globe never so much about from East to West, still you will find that the Fly in the mean time gets forward in her course from West to East. And, if you do so turn the Globe about, that, as often as it turns quite round, the fly may advance one Degree in her Course Westward; you will find that by turning the Globe three hundred sixty five times, the fly shall be gone as many Degrees in a quite contrary way. Such is the Yearly Course of the Sun from West to East, according to which it goes about one Degree every day, and in a years time runs over the twelve Signs or Constellations called the Hou­ses of the Sun.

You have explained it to me with as much clearness as may be.

Now from this Course of the Sun is come the Distinction and Distribution of Time, which is the measure of Motion. And, to pro­ceed à minori ad majus, there is first a Minute, next an Hour, then Days, Weeks, Months, Seasons, Years. Threescore Minutes go to an Hour, twenty four Hours to a natural Day, seven Days to one Week, four Weeks to a Month according to the Moon, and some odd dayes more to a Month of the Sun. Now twelve of these Months make the four Seasons [Page 26]of the Year, viz. three Months to each Sea­son. And so the Year does consist of twelve Months, fifty two Weeks, or of three hun­dred sixty five Dayes and about six hours. Ex­cept it be a Leap-year, and then there is three hundred sixty six Days.

Pray, what's the Occasion of this ad­ditional Day?

You must know that (according to the old Julian Account) the Year consists of three hundred sixty five Days and six hours. Now these fix hours, at four years end, come to twenty four hours, that makes up a Day, which is added to the Month of February. And then that Year is called Leap-year, which by the Romans was named Bissextilis.

As to the Months of the Sun, as we reckon them, some have thirty Days, some thirty one, and February alone has but twenty eight, except every Leap or fourth year, when it has twenty nine Days. Which that you may find out readily at any time, do but mind these following Verses;

But did the Ancients hold the same Year as we do.

Before the time of Julius Caesar they held several forts of Yeas But that Emperour, forty years before Christs Birth, ordained the Year to consist of three hundred sixty five days, and fix hours.

Pray, tell me the Difference of the Old and New style, and what's the Ground of it?

The Old Style, which the Greek Church and most Protestants keep still, is the old Julian Account, which for many Ages seemed to have no sensible Error. But in process of time it was discovered to be not altogether agreeable with the natural Motion of the Sun, the Julian Year exceeding the rue Solar Year ten Minutes, and forty eight Seconds; which caused the Equinoxes;and Solstices yearly to change their Places, and fly back so many minutes and seconds. Where­upon Pope; Gregory the XIII, by the advice and direction of Antonius Lilius and other ex­cellent Mathematicians, corrected the Calen­der, making the Year to consist of three hun­dred sixty five days five hours, forty nine mi­nutes, twelve seconds. And, to the end that the vernal Equinox (which then was on to the ele­venth of March) might be reduced to, the one and twentieth of March, as it was at the time of the first Nicene Council; he commanded ten day in October to be left out, so as the [Page 28]fourth day of October was accounted for the fourteenth day. This hapned in the Year fif­teen hundred eighty two, from which time this Account was called the Gregorian Account; and so came the Distinction of Old and New Style, the Old according to the Julian, and the New according. to the Gregorian Ac­count

Thus the Nations that hold the New Style do reckon ten days before us; and, when it is with us for exemple the first day of May, 'tis the eleventh with them.

Right. But, as we differ in the Style, so we do from some Nations as to the beginning of' Years and of Days.

How so, my Sophronius?

You know;that in most Parts of Europe they begin the Year, as the Romans did, on the first of January. And so we do here in En­gland in some respect, therefore we call it New-Years-Day But upon a Civil Account, and for our Date, of Buying or. Selling, &c. We begin the Year (and so do the Spaniards) eight weeks after, viz. upon Lady-Day, the twenty fifth of March. So the Jews, after they got our of Egypt, began their Year much about the same time in March, to which answered in part their Month Nisan; Whereas before they were wont to begin it in their Month called Tisri or Ethanim, which comprehended part of our September and October.

Now the Venetians begin theirs the first of [Page 29] March. And so did Romulus the Founder of Rome; for 'tis observed that before Julius Caesar, the Month of July was called Quintilis, or the fifth Month from March. The Moscovites, who follow the Greek Church, begin their Year the first of Septem­ber, upon this ground For they believe the World began in Autumn; and, whereas we reckon our Years from the Coming of Christ into the World, they reckon theirs from the time of the Creation.

As for Days, you must know there is a Natural and Artificial Day; that containing Day and Night, and consisting of twenty four hours; this beginning at Sun-rising, and end­ing at Sun-set. The Natural Day is reckoned in most parts of Europe from one midnight to another, reckoning twice twelve hours; that is from Midnight to Noon twelve hours, and from Noon to the Midnight following twelve hours more, beginning with one, two, three, &c. But in Italy (as formerly in Athens) they reckon twenty four, hours all along without coming back to one, as we do; and that from Sun-set to Sun-set. At Nuremberg, and some other Places of Germany, they reckon their Days (as the Ancient Jews and Chaldeans) from one Sun-rising to another; beginning with one a Clock, and so on to the twenty fourth hour. 'Tis true the Jews had (besides their Civil Day) a Sacred Day, destined for Holy Exer­cises, which began at Sun-set, and continued till [Page 30]the next Sun-set. In Moscovy they reckon their day from the Sun-rising till Sun-set; and, when the Sun is gone down, then they reckon the first hour of the night, and so on, till the Sun appear­ing again over their Horizon finishes the time of their Night and begins with them a new Day.

I have heard very often of Equinoxes and Solstices, but could never understand clearly what they are. Be pleased to give me as clear an Account of them as you can.

In Order to that you must know there are yearly two Equinoxes and two Solsti­ces; a Vernal and an Autumnal Equinox, a Sum­mer and a Winter Solstice, which begin the four several Seasons of the Year. For the Vernal Equinox begins the Spring; the Summer Solstice the Summer; the Autumnal Equinox, the Autumn; and the. Winter-Solstice, the Winter. And, as in the Equinoxes the Days and Nights are of an equal length; so in the Summer-Solstice, we have our longest Days, and in the Winter-Solstice our shortest. Now the Equi­quinoxes are so called from the Latin Aequi­noctium, because then the Days and Nights are of an equal length. And the Solstices have their Name from the Latin Word Solstitium, which signifies a stop of the Sun. Not that the Suns Motion be stopped, except from coming nearer us than the Tropick of Cancer, and from going, further from us than the Tropick of Ca­pricorn. But of this you shall hear more here­after.

What shall we then proceed upon?

Next to the Glorious Brightness of the Sun, the Vastness of its Body, the pro­digious Distance thereof from us, and its continual Motion to or from us, let us now consider the Influence of it by its Heat, which in a manner is the Life of Plants and Animals. For, as without the Light of the Sun the whole Frame of Nature should be buried in Dark­ness; so, without the Heat that arises from it, no living Creature could live. Neither is this Heat inherent in the Body of the Sun, but it is wonderfully produced (as Philosophers teach us) by the Reflection of its Beams. Where­with the Air being warmed foments and keeps alive all Vegetables.

But what is an Eclipse of the Sun ?

'Tis a privation of its beams in some part of the Earth, caused by the Inter­position of the Moon betwixt the Sun and that part of the Earth. Which happens when the Moon being in the same Sign and Degree the Sun is in, it falls out that these three Bo­dy's, the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth are diametrally opposite.

And how is the Eclipse of the Moon ?

This you shall know, when I have first made a short Description of it. The Moon, (as I have already observed to you) is the lowest of all the Planets, and consequently that which is nearest to us. Therefore her In­fluence must needs be the stronger over all Sublunary Things.

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'Tis a Planet much subject to Change, and seen in divers Shapes; that sometimes shines, and sometimes does not. And, when it does, it is more or less, according to the proportion of Light it receives from the Sun. We call it new Moon, when it is in conjunction with the Sun; and then it gives us no light, because the dark part of it is to us ward. But four days after it makes its first appearance in the shape of two bright horns, the rest of her Body being dark; and then is the first Quarter. Being a Week old, half of it appears bright, and the other half dark; and then it is called a Crescent, or half-Moon. Thus it increases for a week more, till it comes to. be full; and then, being diametrally opposite to the Sun, this strikes its Beams upon that the more fully. Four days after full Moon, it begins to Decrease and lose its light (which is called the Wane of the Moon;) and three days after this it appears again in the form of a Crescent. So, it loses its Light gradually, till it is New-Moon again.

So I perceive that the nearer the Moon is to the Sun, the less light she receives from it; and on the contrary, the further off, the more luminous she is. But, pray, tell me what Course does this Planer take?

The very same as the Sun's. Only 'tis to be observed that, whereas the Sun is a whole Year finishing its Course, the Moon performs hers in a Month.

Shall I tell you now, Philalethes, some In­fluences [Page 33]of the Moon? 'Tis the Moon that brings the Fruits of the Earth to Maturity and their ultimate Perfection. 'Tis the Moon that influences very much upon Generations, upon great Belly's, and Labours. 'Tis this Planet that contributes greatly to the nourish­ment and growth of living Creatures. Inso­much that it is observed, the very Oisters en­crease and decrease with to the Moon.

But, as the Sun, so the Moon is subject to Eclipses Now an Eclipse of the Moon is no­thing else but its privation of the Light of the Sun, occasioned by the Interposition of the Earth betwixt the Sun and Moon. Which does not commonly happen but upon the full of the Moon, when this Planet is diametrally opposite to the Sun.

Thus much for the Sun and Moon, whose Influences (of all the Planets) are most ta­ken notice of.

But what do you think; Sophronius, of the World in the Moon?

Ay Marry, Now you Started a pret­ty Question indeed; but it is not for me to satis­fy you whether or no there be such a Thing in Nature. Lucian, a man of eminent parts, (but as base an Apostate from the Christian Faith in which he was bred) was the first that writ of this new World in the Moon; but then he proposed it as a meer Fancy of his own, and so he affords us in one of his Dialogues a conceited Character of it. But of late times, [Page 34]that Fancy of his is become a Matter of more serious debate. Insomuch that some have la­boured with great pains to make it probable, that there is another World in the Moon, In­habited (as This is) by People of divers Lan­guages, Customs, Policy's, and Religions. And, more than so, some Means and Ways have been proposed to Consideration for main­taining an Intercourse and Commerce betwixt That and This. The like Indeavours there are to prove that the Earth is a Planet. And, long before Lucians time, Aristophanes (a fa­mous Man amongst the old Greek Poets) speaks in one of his Comedy's of a City of Cuckoos in the Clouds, which he calls Nephelo­coccygia.

I must confess these are pretty Con­ceits.

However 'tis observable, that great Truths have been started upon slight Presump­tions. And truly it goes hard with some to believe, that such an infinite Number of great and glorious Stars as there are in the Heavens should be appointed only to wait upon this little and dirty Spot of Earth. I say no more, because it is time to conclude.

I forgot my self, and should have con­sidered how precious your Time is. But I am so ravished with this kind of Learning, that what Knowledge you have already infused into my Mind do's but inflame my Desire of knowing more.

I am very glad to see you relish these Things. And, as for my Time, you may assure your self that I think no Time lost but what I do not spend at your Service. At our next Meeting, if you will, we shall discourse of the Air and Meteors.

When it shall stand with your Conve­niency.

The Third Discourse.

I come again to you, Sophronius, with a greedy mind to learn how the World stands.

Well Philalethes, I shall endeavour to satiate your Greediness; and, were you a Ca­melion, you should not want for Air, I assure you. For 'tis the Air (as I remember) which is the Subject fixt upon for our present Di­course. And I can afford you three Services of it, all of a different Nature.

I perceive you intend to Air me to some tune.

Ay, but take heed of an After-clap. For I shall come upon you at last with Thun­der and Lightning.

I feat it not, provided it be such as may inlighten my Understanding.

To make then no further Preamble, you must know the Air is a thin, transparent, luke-warm, and moist Element, that sur­rounds the Globe of the Earth. 'Tis the Air that penetrates the substance of mixt Body's, and which makes way for Generation. 'Tis the Air that serves for our Respiration, for Vocal and Instrumental Musick, &c. and where­in the Birds of the Air move with great Swift­ness. In fine, 'tis the Scene where Nature acts those Wonders we call Meteors.

The same is by Pilosophers divided into three Regions, viz. the Upper, Middle, and Lower Region.

These are, I suppose, the three Ser­vices you intend to treat me with; a very Airy Diet.

You found it out. But to be serious, the Upper Region begins from the Sphere of the Moon, and reaches to that part of the Air where the Vapours condensate. The Mid­dle Region, which follows next, is bounded by the reflected Beams of the Sun. And the Lower reaches from thence to the Surface of the Earth. But, because the Sun-Beams reach higher in Summer-time than they do in Winter, therefore 'tis to be concluded, that in Summer the Middle Region is lesser, and the Lower greater, than in Winter.

Now 'tis the General Opinion of Philoso­phers, that the Supream (or Upper) Region is accidentally warm, either by reason of the fiery [Page 37]and Sulphureous Exhalations which ascend thi­ther, or because of the violent Motion of the Spheres from East to West, or lastly (accor­ding to Aristotle) because it is next to the E­lementary Fire which he places in the Con­cave of the Moon. The Middle Region is cold. And the Lower is sometimes warm and sometimes cold, according as the Sun affects it with its Beams by its nearness or remoteness.

But what is that we call Wind?

'Tis nothing else but an Agitation, or a strong Motion of the Air; occasioned chief­ly by the Sun, and by Vapours and Exhalati­ons. For the Sun by its natural brightness does rarifie the Air, and this being rarify'd requires more room, and so struggles hard for't. On the other side, the Exhalations from the Earth and Vapours from the Water being raised in great quantity and with some Violence up to the middle Region of the Air, do often occa­sion a Wind by their Conflict with the cold Air they meet in that Region. But there are other Causes assigned for the Wind. As the Clouds, when they rarifie, or when by their descent, they press the Air. To which add the Snow and Ice, (especially in Mountainous places) that often turn into Wind. Which is the Reason why the Streight of Magellan, having on both sides of it high Mountains always covered with Snow, is subject to those Counter-Winds, which beat with equal Fury on all parts there­of; Insomuch that, which way soever a man [Page 38]Steer his Course, he shall be sure to have the Wind against him.

Now the Winds move cross ways, that is, neither upwards nor downwards. The Reason is, because when the Air is pressed down still there arise more Vapours which beat it back.

But how many sorts of Winds do you reckon?

A great many. And they are chiefly divided into Cardinal, and Collateral. We call Cardinal Winds those that blow exactly from the four Quarters of the World, North, South, East, and West; from whence we call them generally North, South, East, and West Winds.

But how shall I know the one from the other?

If you do but know the North, you know all. For it is but turning your face streight to the North, and then you have the East on your right hand, the West on the left, and the South just behind you opposite to the North.

But then by the East you must understand the East Equinoctial, that is where the Sun rises in an Equinox; and accordingly by the West you must understand the West Equinoctial, where the Sun Sets in an Equinox.

Otherwise you know, that when the Sun has past the Equinoctial, it Rises and Sets gra­dually higher or lower in our Horizon. From [Page] [Page]

[compass rose]

[Page 39]whence is come the distinstion of Summer-East and Winter-East, Summer-West and Winter-West. For in Summer time the Sun rises betwixt the North and the East Equinoctial; and in Winter time, betwixt the East Equinoctial and the South. And accordingly it sets in Summer betwixt the West Equinoctial and the North; and in Winter, betwixt the West Equinoctial and the South.

Now what do you mean, Sophronius, by Collateral Winds?

You must know there are no less than 28. of these, that is, seven betwixt two Cardinal ones; as betwixt North and East, East and South, South and West, West and North. Amongst which, those that are just in the middle betwixt two Cardinal Winds are count­ed the chiefest. So, reckoning the four Car­dinal Winds, there are in all 32. Winds, the Names of which you have in their Order in the following Scheme.

And now, Philalethes, I must observe to you, 1. That in Spring and Autumn Winds are com­monly more brief and more violent than ei­ther in a hot Summer or a frosty Winter. 2. That Winds are more frequent from the East then from the West, especially in the Torrid Zone. In England the East-Wind is most common in [Page 40]the Spring, and is counted an unwholsom Wind, both to Plants and Living Creatures, accor­ding to the Proverb that says, Wind from the East is neither good for Man nor Beast. But in Summer-time the South-West Wind does most times predominate. 3. That East and North Winds are commonly both colder and stron­ger than either West or South Winds, especi­ally in our Zone. 4. That Winds are conveni­ent for two things principally, that is for Na­vigation, and (except the East Wind) to pu­rifie the Air.

There are those who pretend to fore­see what Wind will blow. What do you think of it, Sophronius?

I confess one may give sometimes a shrewd guess, & the Mariners (those Amphibi­ous Creatures that live most upon Wind and Water) have a pecular Gift that way. The An­cients guessed at it by the sight of some Birds, of a Dolphin, or of some Meteor or other. Now our Sea-men, when they see a small Cloud of a pale or blackish colour, they con­clude a Wind from thence. So when the Sun does not rise clear, but seems to be spotted, or when it is overcast with a pale or a black Cloud, it presages either Wind or Rain. The sames is observed of the Sun, if it look pale when it sets. And then, if clouded with black Clouds, 'tis a sign of a North Wind. The Moon, when it looks red, is lookt upon as a certain sign of windy weather, according to the Verse,

[Page 41] ‘ Pallida Luna pluit, Rubicunda flat, Alba serenat.’

And so is the Circle about the Moon. There are other Signs of Winds, as when the Sea makes a grumbling Noise inwardly. Lastly, a great deal of Rain is usually followed with a strong Wind.

What kind of Wind is that which is called a Trade-Wind?

'Tis a Wind which blows constantly at a set time of the Year, and continues for a long time together. Such were the Etesiae a­mongst the ancient Greeks, for so they call'd the North-winds that blew constantly every Year for 40. days together in the Dog-days.

What do you mean by an Hurricane?

A Tempestuous Gust of Wind, such as destroys most Ships at Sea that are in its way, pulls down Houses, and pulls up Trees by the root. The word is come from the West-Indies, and particularly from the Caribby-Islands, where they have once in two or three years (in July, or thereabouts) most dreadful Hurricanes, thus described by Sea-men. First, the Sun exhales a great quantity of Water from the Sea into a Cloud, and then it gushes down with great violence; followed with a terrible Tempest of Wind, which lasts about two or three hours, and sometimes longer. By which means the Sea rages so furiously that no Ship [Page 42]almost can hold out, and few Houses at Land in its way escape being destroyed.

In July, 1666. The Lord Willoughby of Par­ham, sailing betwixt Barbados and St. Christo­phers, had the ill fortune to be lost in an Hur­ricane, with divers English Ships. In short, an Hurricane can be compared to nothing so well as to a violent Earth-quake.

Now you put me in mind of Earth­quakes, pray, what is the occasion of them?

Nothing but Subterranean Winds that force their passage out of the Earth with great violence, whereby sometimes whole Cities are swallowed up. Witness so many fine Places in the East, that have been destroyed by Earth-quakes, the Falling-Sickness of most great City's in those Parts.

My Blood chills in my Veins with the dreadful Thoughts of Earthquakes and Hur­ricanes. Pray, let us leave this Subject.

The next Thing that offers it self to our Consideration is the Meteors, those Phae­nomena which are formed in the Air, and made either of Exhalations or Vapours raised up thither by the heat of the Sun and virtue of the Stars.

What difference do you put betwixt the Exhalations and Vapours?

The Exhalations come out of the Earth, and are warm and dry; the Vapours from the Water, being both warm and moist. [Page 43]Those are proper for Fiery, and these for Watery Meteors.

Which of the three Regions of the Air is proper to Meteors?

Some Meteors are formed in the Up­per Region, some in the Middle, and others in the Lower. Which that you may the bet­ter apprehend, you must know in the first place, that some Meteors are Real, and others but Apparent.

The Real Meteors are either Fiery, or Wa­tery. The first are Simple, or Mixt. Those we call Simple, that consist only of Exhalations; and Mixt, such as are of a cour­ser and more viscous nature, consisting both of Vapours and Exhalations.

Simple, as, In the Upper Region,

• Fax, or Candela accensa, a burning Taper.
• Trabs, or Ignis Perpendicularis, a Firy Beam.
• Bolis, or Jaculum, a Dart.
• Caprae Saltantes, the Skipping Goats.
• Scintillae Volantes, the flying Sparks.

In the Middle Region,

• Stella Discurrens, a shooting Star.
• Stella Cadens, a falling Star.
• Lancea Ardens, the Fiery Lance.

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In the Lower Region,

• Draco Volans, the flying Dragon.
• Ignis Fatuus, Jack in a Lanthorn.
• Ignis Lambens, the Lambent Fire.

Mixt, as In the Upper Region,

• Cometa a Comet, or Blazing-Star.

And in the Middle,

• Fulgur, a Lightning.
• Fulmen, a Thunderbolt.

Fax, or Candela accensa, is a thin firy Meteor; so called because of its resemblance to a burn­ing Taper. Trabs, or Ignis Perpendicularis, is another sort of firy Meteor shaped some­thing like a Beam or a Pyramid, and burning all together. Bolis, or Jaculum, is a Meteor, that having catched Fire fly's upward, and looks like a Fiery Dart. Caprae Saltantes is an odd kind of Meteor, the matter whereof ex­tends more in length than in breadth, and which having took Fire looks like so many skipping Goats. Scintillae Volantes, or flying Sparks, are nothing but Exhalations which spread themselves into many small parts, and by their motion take fire.

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Stella Discurrens, a shooting Star, is a fiery Meteor of the Middle Region, of a Globous Figure, which conceiving Fire by the coldness of the Air runs with an oblique motion. Whereas Stella Cadens, or a falling Star, comes down, and so appears like a Star falling from the Sky. Lancea Ardens, a fiery Lance, is a long and well compacted Meteor, which having took fire falls down like a fire-brand.

Draco Volans, or a flying Dragon, is a cour­ser sort of Meteor seen in the Lower Region; which being raised up on high, and clashing with a cold Cloud catches fire, and bends it self into some form of a Dragon. Ignis fatuus, well known in English by the Nick-Names of Jack in a Lanthorn, or Will, with a Wisp, is also a Phenomenon of the Lower Region, but of a courser nature. Which conceiving fire by the coolness of the night, and being tossed to and fro by the Wind, is apt to run into steep Places and Precipices; and so proves some­times fatal to Travellers, that suffer them­selves to be misguided by such a false Light. This Meteor is seen chiefly in Summer time, and most of all in hot Country's, as in Aethio­pia, where they are very brief. When it ap­peared single, the Ancients called it Helena; and, when it appeared in two parts, they na­med them Castor and Pollux. Lastly, Ignis Lam­bens is a light and thin Meteor, without any heat; that sticks sometimes to mens cloaths or hair, and do's no hurt at all.

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Cometa a Comet, or Blazing Star, is a Meteor consisting of great abundance of dry and vis­cous Exhalations, with some mixture of Va­pours, both raised up to the Upper Region; where being well compacted together they take fire by their own motion, and appear to us in the shape of a great Star. Now there are three sorts of Comets, viz. Crinitus hairy, Barbatus bearded, and Caudatus with a tail. The first happens, when the Pabulum is thick in the middle, and thin in the outward parts; which makes the Comet look with a kind of dispersed light round about like ones hair a­bout the head. The Bearded Comet is so cal­led, when the outward parts reach no great way, and look something like a Beard about the Star. The Comet with a Tail is that which spreads it self a great way on one side or other, and appears to us like a Star with a long tail. Of this last sort there have appeared several in our Time; but none of so prodigious a length as that which is yet so fresh in our Memory, I mean the great Comet that was seen but last Year.

The proper Time (if any) for the appear­ance of Comets is Autumn, a Season which do's most abound with Vapours and Exhalati­ons. Their Duration is uncertain, for it falls out according to the Pabulum. However it is observed, that the longest continuance of a Co­met is six Months, and the shortest a Week.

But do you think, Sophronius, that Co­mets are Ominous?

I confess it is a vulgar Opinion, grounded upon this Experience, that few Co­mets appear but what are followed with Wars, Pestilence, Famine, or some other publick Calamity. But, whether those Things be re­ally influenced by the Comets (which are a natural Meteor) 'tis more than can be pro­ved.

Now, to proceed,

Fulgur, a Lightning, is a flash of Fire that comes out of a Cloud. The matter of which Meteor being but thin and dispersed is the reason why it catches fire but here and there, and that it vanishes away presently.

Fulmen, a Thunderbolt, is a fiery Meteor that breaks out of a Cloud with great Vio­lence, and dashes in pieces whatever it falls upon. And this is properly that which the Philosophers call Fulmen Discutiens. But there is another sort of Fulmen called Terebrans, be­cause it do's only bore a hole where it chances to fall. And lastly, there's Fulmen Urens, which do's nothing but blast, and therefore we only call it a blasting Lightning.

But what have you to say of the Thunder, which commonly go's along with the Lightning?

The Thunder is a Noise caused by the clashing of the Exhalations against the sides of a Cloud, or by their breaking out of it. Now [Page 48]the Exhalations do either break out all at once, as when we break a Bladder full of Wind, and then we hear a great crack; or else at divers times, and then the noise is re-doubled. But, when the Exhalations do not break out of the Cloud, and remain shut up in it, then it is that we hear a Grumbling Noise.

How comes it that sometimes it Lightens without Thunder, and that on the contrary it sometimes Thunders without any Light­ning?

When the Cloud makes no great re­sistance to the Exhalations, then it Lightens without Thunder; and, when the Exhalation is not apt to catch fire, then it Thunders with­out Lightning.

But how comes it to pass that when the Thunder and Lightning go together, we sooner see the Lightning than we hear the Thunder?

By the same reason that we sooner see the fire of a Cannon shot off at some distance, than we hear the noise of it. And that is, because our Sight is quicker than our Hear­ing.

Now Philalethes, I think we have done pret­ty well as to the fiery Meteors, let us pro­ceed to the Watery ones. Some of which belong

[Page 49]

To the Middle Region, Viz.

• Clouds,
• Rain, and
• Snow;

Some to the Lower, as

• Hail,
• Dew,
• Hoar-Frost,
• Mist,
• Ice.

A Cloud is a great heap of Vapours raised up by the Sun and other Stars to the middle Region of the Air, and there condensated by the coldness of it. Now some Clouds are thin, bright, and airy, apt to be dissipated either by the heat of the Sun, or by the force of Winds; when others are thick, black, full of moisture, and consequently fit for the pro­duction of Rain.

For Rain is nothing else but a Cloud dissol­ved. And, when the Vapours are but thin, then it Rains small; when thick, the Rain is greater. Sometimes there has been seen Frogs, little Fishes, Bloud, Milk, Stones; Iron, and the like, come down with the Rain; but then it is, as the Philosophers call it, Pluvia Prodigiosa, a Prodigious Rain. Of all the Winds, none is so apt to bring Rain as a South Wind; and of all other signs of Rain, a pale Moon is one of the truest, according to the foresaid Verse, Pallida Luna pluit, &c.

[Page 50]

The Snow is a Meteor of a Spungious Na­ture, into which the Clouds do frequently dissolve themselves in Winter. For then, the middle Region of the Air being colder than ordinary, the Clouds are so affected, and (as it were) bound with the coldness thereof, that instead of Rain, they dissolve themselves into that white, fleece-like, and light Substance we call Snow. Some think the Clouds that produce this Meteor have almost in them as great a quantity of Exhalations as Vapours, and that those being extinguished in these, make that spungious substance which at last breaks, and comes fleeting down.

Hail is nothing else but Rain congealed in the Air; when the Rain coming down from the middle Region is surprized by the heat of the lower Region, and so congeals it self into hail to resist it. Whereby you may conclude, and 'tis found so by experience, that hot Coun­try's are most of all subject to this kind of Meteor.

The Dew is but a thin and light Vapour, raised not much above the Ground. Which Va­pour being condensated by a temperate cool Night, dissolves it self into small drops of Wa­ter, and falls down here and there. But then it must be calm weather, or else those light Vapours (if disturbed by any Wind) cannot condensate.

Hoar-Frost, or Rime, is nothing else but a Winter Dew, congealed into the form of white [Page 51]Salt, by the cold Air of a Winter-night

And what is that, I pray, which is called Honey-Dew?

'Tis a Dew which Men gather upon some Trees, and the Bees upon some sorts of Flowers, qualified by a Spirit which those Trees and Flowers do sometimes exhale into their Leaves.

To proceed, a Mist, or Fog, is a Vapour that seldom rises but at the Sun-rising or Sun­set, and which the cold weather do's so conden­sate by degrees, that it lies about us and dark­ens the very Air we breath. This Meteor (which sometimes has an unwholsome smell with it) is most common in Autumn and in Winter, when the Sun being farthest from us has not strength to raise those thick Vapours above us up to the middle Region.

Now you led me into a stinking Mist, pray, bring me out of it.

Then you must come over the Ice, which is but congealed water. And that which helps the Congelation, besides the extream coldness of the Weather, is when there is some mixture of Earth with the Water.

And so, Philalethes, I have done with the Real Meteors, both Firy and Watery. I shall now briefly conclude with those Meteors which the Greeks call Phasmata, and the Latins Meteo­ra apparentia.

[Page 52]

Such as

• Parhelius, or the Image of the Sun.
• Paraselene, the Image of the Moon.
• Iris, the Rain-bow.
• Halo, a circle about the Sun or Moon.
• Vorago, a great Gap.
• Virgae perpendiculares, the perpendicular Rods.

Parhelius is the Image of the Sun reflected upon a Cloud. And, when it happens that we see several Suns, it is but by the Impression of one Cloud upon another disposed to receive that Image.

The same it is with Paraselene, or the Image of the Moon.

Iris, or the Rain-bow, is the Representati­on of a Bow or Semi-Circle upon a Drizling Cloud, which is caused by the reflected beams of the Sun. This is the most common of all these luminous Meteors, fre­quently seen either in a Morning or in an Even­ing, and that with these four Colours, red, green, white; and yellow. In the Morning it presages cloudy weather, and in the Even­ing it promises fair weather.

Halo, otherwise called Area, or Corona, is a white and bright Circle; which appears some­times upon a Cloud, either under the Sun, or (which is most common) under the Moon.

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Vorag, a great Gap, is an Exhalation raised up into the Air, where having contracted a brightness, but no where so little as in the mid­dle part of it, as being thicker than the rest, makes this look like a great Gap. The lesser sort of which is more properly called Hiatus, or Chasma.

Virgae Perpendiculares are nothing else but the Reflection of the beams of the Sun through a thick Cloud.

And so much for this time. In our next Con­ference, I shall entertain you with the Globe of the Earth.

The Fourth Discourse.

At last from the Heavens and the Air we are now come to our cloggy Element, the Earth, the Mother of Stones, Me­tals, Minerals, Plants, and living Creatures. This Earth where God has displayed the Wonders of his Infinite Wisdom, Goodness, and Omnipo­tency; but where Men shew daily their Mad­nels, Malice, and Weakness. This Earth, the [Page 54]general Stage of Mankind, where are daily acted innumerable ridiculous Farces and fatal Tragedy's. Which made a merry-conceited Author cry out, not without reason, in these Words, Where shall a Man walk, and not meet with Seignior Deliro? that is Mr. Mad-man. This Earth in fine, which has been of old a Prey to Ambitious and Greedy Conquerors, those cruel and blood-thirsty Leeches that take such delight in Blood, those Enemies and Disturbers of Man-kind, whose boundless Ambi­tion and Avarice the World cannot satiate. These are the Idols that will not be appeased without Humane Sacrifices; These, the wild Boars that waste our Arcadia's. But where is the Hercules?

And now to give you a Geographical Account of this Earth, I must tell you in the first place, that the Earth and Waters together make a round Body, commonly called Terrestrial, but more properly Terr-Aqueous, Globe. Terr-Aqueous, because it consists of Earth and Waters; and Globe, from its Figure. Now this Globe is all surrounded with the Air, and hangs in the midst of it.

How is it possible for the Earth and Waters together to make a round Body, when there are so many Mountains, and some of them of a prodigious height?

Those Mountains in respect to the Globe are nothing, if compared to the great­ness of it. Witness el Pico, one of the highest Hills in the known World, and yet not above two [Page 55]Leagues high perpendicularly. And what is, I pray, the disproportion of two Leagues in a Body which no less than 1200. only to the Cen­ter, or the middle point?

Do you say so? How big is then the Terr-Aqueous Globe about?

It is no less than 360. Degrees, which at 20. Leagues (or 60. miles) a Degree comes to 7200. leagues, or 21600. miles. And yet 'tis all but a Point, if compared with Heaven.

Now the Diameter being in all round Bodies the third part of the Circumference, it follows that the Diameter of the Terrestrial Globe is 2400. leagues, and consequently the Semi-Diameter (which reaches but to the Center) 1200. leagues.

I am satisfied as to that, but I am gra­velled upon another account. For I cannot conceive how so great and so heavy a Body as is the Terr-Aqueous Globe (as you call it) should hang in the Air without any support, when if we throw but a stone into the Air it presently falls down.

The Reason is, because all heavy things do naturally incline to their Center, which is thought to have an attractive faculty to that purpose.

The next Thing we must consider is, that one part of the Earth is visible, and the other part under Water. Now the Question is, you will say, which of the two Superficies is greater, that of the Earth, or that of the Water. But [Page 56]this we cannot tell certainly, because one great Part of the Terr-Aqueous Globe is as yet un­known to us. And, if we speak only of that Part which is known, there is no doubt, in case that we do reckon Lakes and Rivers, but that the Superficies of the Water exceeds that of the Land. Otherwise I find no great odds be­twixt the Sea and the Land. 'Tis true, the Sea gets ground now and then, and incroaches upon the Land; but 'tis as true on the other side, that it leaves some places dry. Witness Zealand, which formerly was under the Sea, as we may guess by the great Bone­fishes and Anchors that have been digged up there; and now is a pleasant, fertile, and po­pulous Countrey. But however all this is no­thing, if compared to the whole Superficies of the Earth and Waters.

And so, Philalethes, we have hitherto spoke of the Earth and Waters as an Aggregate Bo­dy, now we must treat of them separately.

First You must know the Land, as it is more or less incompassed with Water, is principal­ly divided

Into Continents, Islands, Peninsules.

A Continent, otherwise called Firm Land, is a great part of Earth, but partly watered by the Sea; as France, and Germany.

An Island is a part of Earth invironed round about with Water; as great Britain, and Ire­land.

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A Peninsule is a part of Earth almost sur­rounded with Water, and only joyned to the Continent by a narrow neck of Land; as Mo­rea in Greece.

Now in Continents, Islands, and Peninsule's are to be considered these natural Parts fol­lowing;

Viz.

• Isthmus, or Neck of Land.
• Cape, or Promontory.
• Point, or Foreland.
• Coast, or Sea-Coast.
• Shore, or Bank.
• Hill, Mount, or Mountain.
• Valley, or Dale.
• Pit, or Precipice.
• Marsh, Mere, or Fens.
• Plain, or Champaign Ground.
• Downs.
• Heaths.
• Forrest, or Wood.
• Desart, or Wilderness.

An Isthmus is a narrow Neck of Land that joyns a Peninsule to a Continent. A Cape, or Promontory, is a Hill that shoots forth into the Sea. A Point, or Foreland, is a narrow piece of Ground that runs point-wise into the Sea. A Coast, or Sea-Coast, is that part of a Country which lies by the Sea-side. A Shore, the very extremity of Land that borders upon any Wa­ter; and, if raised much higher than the Water, then it is termed a Bank. A Hill is a part of Earth rising more or less above the neighbou­ring Ground; but, if it be of a great height or extent, then it is also called by the name of Mount, or Mountain. A Valley, or a Dale, is a low Ground that lies at the bottom of a Hill, [Page 58]or betwixt two distinct Hills. A Pit, or Pre­cipice, is a great fall of Earth apt to strike with horror those that look down into it. Marsh, Meers, Fens, or Marshy Ground, a Quantity of Land so intermixt with Water, that it is not passable but in a great Drought or hard Frost. A Plain, or Champaign Ground, is a great plot of Ground lying level and open. Which, if upon a Hill, is called Downs; and, if overgrown with Heath, is named a Heath. By a Forrest, or Wood, is properly meant a great Plot of Ground cove­red with Trees unplanted and growing of their own accord. Lastly we call a Desart, or Wil­derness, a vast quantity of Barren and uninhabi­ted Land.

To make some useful Reflections upon what is said, I desire to know in the first place which are the chiefest and most remarkable Islands.

To answer your Desire, there is first in Europe, Great Brittain, and Ireland, both sur­rounded with the Ocean. These are the two largest Islands of Europe; and great Brittain, as it is one of the best, so 'tis one of the great­est Islands in the World. Then in the Mediter­ranean, if you begin from the Streights, you will find these goodly Islands East of Spain, viz. Yvica, Majorca, and Minorca, the two last be­ing the Baleares Insulae of the Ancients. Further Eastward you will meet with Sardinia, and North of that with Corsica. Then at the very Foot of Italy is Sicily, the greatest Island in the [Page 59] Mediterranean. Not much Inferiour to which is Candia, formerly called Creet, lying South-East of Morea in Greece. In the Archipelago, or the Aegean Sea, (a Sea which swarms with Islands) the principal Island for bigness is the Negropont, formerly known by the name of Euboea. As to the Northern Sea, called the Baltick, there are few Islands of any great note, besides Zealand and Fuinen; which make part of Denmark, and in the first of which you will find Copenhagen the Royal Seat of that Kingdom.

Secondly, In Asia, the chief Islands for big­ness, and first in the Mediterranean, are Cyprus in the furthest parts of the Sea towards the East. Next to which is the Isle of Rhodes lying West­ward from it. But in the Ocean you will find, besides Ceylan a considerable Island in the East-Indies, these following incomparably big­ger, viz. Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Min­danao, Lucon or Manille, and East of China Japan.

Africk cannot boast of any great Island, be­sides that of Madagascar, which indeed is a vast Island, lying South-East-ward.

In the New World, or America, you will find near the Month of the River Canada, a great Island called New-found-Land; and in the Gulf of Mexico, Cuba, and Hispaniola. West of Mare Vermejo, or the Vermilion Sea, there's an Island as big as those three, which is called California; and South of the Streights of Magellan is also a large Island called Terra del Fuego, or the Land of Fire. The Rest are not to be compared in bigness to any of those.

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But towards Terra Borealis, North of America, you will find three great (but wild) Islands, called Cumberlands Isles, lying betwixt the Streights of Hudson and Davis; and another near Furbisher's Streights. Further towards the East is Iseland, another great Island belonging to the King of Denmark, which is but thinly In­habited. The Arctick Circle passes through the middle of it.

What do you think, Sophronius, of Eu­rope, Asia and Africk? Are they not surroun­ded with the Sea?

They are so. But, because of their vast Extent, they are usually called by the name of Continents.

I have heard say of Sicily, that it was credibly supposed to have been in former times joyned to Italy. Pray, what ground is there for it?

The Narrowness of the Streights, and the Shallowness of it, besides that the Land on both sides is very brittle. First, the Streight is so narrow, that where narrowest, it is not a­bove a mile and a half broad; and 'tis observed that, at the taking of Messina by the Carthagini­ans, many of the Inhabitants saved themselves by swimming over into Italy. Secondly, It is so Shallow that upon a diligent Sounding 'tis found not to be above eight Fathom deep. Thirdly, the Land on both sides is so very brittle and so full of hollow Caverns and Chinks, that it is lookt upon as the effects of a working Sea [Page 61]on this separation. To which add, that on the Italian Coast there stands a City of old called Rhegium, and now Regio, from the Greek Verb [...], to break off or pull asunder, supposed to be so called upon this occasion. The Poets themselves give us to understand as much, when they tell us that Neptune with his Trident broke this Island off from the Continent in sa­vour of Jocastus the Son of Aeolus, that so he might Inhabit there with the greater safety. And indeed, if by Neptune we understand the Sea, and by Aeolus the Winds, we may easily with some help from the Mythologists make a Story good enough of that Poetical Fiction.

By what you said the Thing seems very probable. And who knows but that our Island here was once joyn'd to the Continent of France, and broke off from it by the violence of the Sea and the fury of blustering Winds, or perhaps by some Earthquake? 'Tis you know, but twenty miles over.

That's a great way, Philalethes, and I look upon that distance as the greatest Argu­ment against it, though I know there be those who are apt to believe it. But let there be a Demurr upon that Subject; and, if you will, let us now take a Survey of the chief Penin­sules.

First, I begin with Africk, the largest and truest Peninsule of all, being every where sur­rounded with Seas, except where it joyns to Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Sues. As for [Page 62] Europe and Asia, you may call them (if you will) Peninsules, but not so properly as Africk. For, though they be almost surrounded with Seas, yet there is more than an Isthmus in the case; Europe being joyned to Asia a good way by Land, and this last besides to Africk by the aforesaid Isthmus. But the Northern and Southern America make of themselves two large and perfect Peninsules, every where incompas­sed with Seas, but where they joyn together in the middle by the Isthmus of Panama.

Besides those great Peninsules, there are o­thers of a less compass, and yet much taken notice of. As 1. Jutland in Denmark, known amongst the Ancients by the name of Cimbri­ca Chersonesus, Chersonesus being Originally a Greek Word for a Peninsule. 2. The Taurick Chersonese, from the Latin Taurica Chersonesus, which is properly the European Tartary, lying betwixt the Black Sea and Palus Maeotis. 3. The Thracian Chersonese, from the Latin Thracica Chersonesus, a Peninsule which runs North from the Hellespont in Greece. 4. Morea (formerly called Peloponesus) in the Southern parts of Greece, this Peninsule being joyned but by a ve­ry little Isthmus (called the Corinthian Isthmus) to the Continent of Greece. 5. The Golden Chersonese, from the Latin Aurea Chersonesus, a famous Peninsule in the East-Indies, where now lies the Kingdom of Malacca and the South part of that of Siam. 6. The Peninsule of Corea, in the North-East parts of China. 7. Those of Acadia, [Page 63]Florida, and Yucatan, in the Northern America; the first lying Southward of St. Laurence's Gulf; the second in Florida, North of the Island Cuba; and the third being part of Mexico, or New Spain.

Now, among the Istmus's that joyn these Peninsules to their several Continents, there are three of special note, viz. the Isthmus of Sues, the Corinthian Isthmus, and that of Panama.

And it is observable, first, as to the Corin­thian Isthmus, that there was a Design of old to cut it through (being but six miles in breadth) and so make a perfect Island of Mo­rea. This was attempted (but in vain) first by Demetrius King of Macedon, then by Julius Caesar, afterwards by Caius Caligula, and most of all by the Emperour Nero. Who, to hearten his Soldiers, took himself a Spade in hand, and began the Work. But at last they being fright­ed with the Blood which abundantly broke forth, with the Groans and Roarings they con­tinually heard, and with the Hobgoblins and Furies which were always in their sight (as if God had not been pleased with so proud an Enterprize) perswaded the Emperour to give over this unprofitable Design, as had done the former Princes on the like Discouragements.

As to that of Panama, which is twenty Leagues in breadth (a small Ligament for so great a Body as the Northern and Southern America) there has been also some thoughts of cutting a Navigable Channel through that [Page 64] Isthmus; whereby those two Peninsules should be turned into Islands, and the long Voya­ges to China and the Molucca's might be very much shortned. The Thing it self has been of­tentimes moved to the Council of Spain. But it was not thought convenient to attempt it.

In Aegypt Sesostris King of that Countrey attempted to cut a main Channel from the Red Sea to the River Nilus fit for Ships of great Burthen, the marks of which proud At­tempt are remaining still. His Project was se­conded by Darius the great Persian Monarch, and one of the Ptolomies. But they all gave it o­ver for this Reason, lest by letting in the Red Sea they should drown the Country, that Sea be­ing found to be much higher than the Mediter­ranean and the Flats of Aegypt.

So perhaps a second Deluge was pre­vented.

I could tell you more of these Pro­jects, which never came to perfection. As that of Nicanor King of Syria, to have made a Chan­nel from the Caspian to the Euxine (or Black) Sea, which was a prodigious Project; That of Lucius Verus, who intended to joyn the Rhine and the Rhone; and the Project of Charles the Great, to let the Rhine into the Danube. There is none but great Lewis, the now Almighty King of France, who by a long and chargeable Chan­nel carry'd through his Dominions has at last joyned the Ocean to the Mediterranean.

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I should now resume, Philalethes, the thread of our Discourse, but that I am loth to pass by the strange and famous Adventure of John Oxenham, an English man, in his Passage over the Isthmus of Panama by Land. An Adven­ture not to be forgotten, and recorded by Spanish Writers with much Admiration. This Man, one of the Followers of Sir Francis Drake, being arrived in a small Barque, with seventy of his Companions, a little above Nombre de Dios the chiefest Town of all the Isthmus, drew his Barque on Land, covered it with Boughs, and marched over the Land with his Compa­ny, guided by Negroes, till he came to a Ri­ver. There he cut down Wood, made him a Pinnace, entred the South Sea, and went to the Isle of Pearls, where he stay'd some days. During which he intercepted in two Spanish Ships (who feared no Enemy on that side) 60000 pound weight of Gold, 200000 pound weight in Bars of Silver, and so returned in safety to the Land.

The Attempt was bold, the Success strange, and the Booty prodigious. But what became of the Adventurer at last?

It happen'd, by the Mutiny of some of his Company, that he never lived to return unto his Ship, nor into his own Country.

Thus having done, Philalethes, with Isth­mus's, shall I now give you an Account of such Capes as are most famous amongst us?

With all my heart.

Then, to begin with Europe, there is in Lap-land the North Cape, being the most Northern part of Europe, in the 72. Degree of Northern Latitude. In Galicia, a Province of Spain, the Cape of Finisterra, in the 44th De­gree of the same Latitude. In Algarve, the most Southern Province of Portugal, the Cape of St. Vincent, in the 37th Degree of the same Lati­tude. And in the most Southern part of Greece, the Capes of Gallo and Matapan, in the 35th Degree of the same Latitude.

In Asia, Cape Raz, the most Eastern part of Arabia, in the 22th Degree of Northern Lati­tude. Cape Mosandan, upon the Streights of the Persian Gulf, in the 27th Degree of the same Latitude. Cape Comori, in the most Sou­thern part of Malabar in India, and in the 8th Degree of Northern Latitude.

In Africk, the Cape of Bone upon the Medi­terranean, South and by West of Sicily; and to­wards the Streights Cabo de las tres furcas. Then, upon the Atlantick Sea, Cape Cantin, in the Kingdom of Morocco, and in the 32d. Degree of Northern Latitude. Cabo biance, or the white Cape, in the Negro's Land, and in the 21th Degree of the same Latitude. Cape verd, or the green Cape, also in the Negro's Land, but in the 15th Degree, of Northern Latitude. And Cabo Formoso, or the Fair Cape, in Guinea, and in the 4th Degree of the same Latitnde. Then Cabo Negro, or the Black Cape, upon the Coast of Cafraria, and in the 17th Degree of [Page 67] Southern Latitude. And in the most Southern Parts of Africk, the famous Cape of good Hope, being in the 35th Degree of Southern Latitude. First Discovered Anno. 1487. by Bartholomew de Diez a Portuguese, whom John, 11. King of Portugal imployed to find out the way to the East-Indies. But he went no further, and returned home again, either discouraged by cross Winds, or unruly Seas, or the un­tractableness of his Mariners, or by all toge­ther. Vasques de Gama was the Man to whom the Honour of this Enterprize was reserved. Who being imployed in this Service by Ema­nuel King of Portugal in the year 1497. dou­bled the Cape, and called it Cabo de Buena Spe­ranza, or the Cape of good Hope, because of the good hope it gave him of finding the desi­red Way to the Trade of India. Wherein he was so successfull, that having found there the Port of Calicut, he with infinite Joy and Ho­nour returned to Lisbon in the year 1500, and so opened the way to the East-India Trade by Sea. Upon the Eastern Coast there are two noted Capes, that of Corrientes, and the Cape of Guarda­fuy; this last being the most Eastern part of A­frick, 130 Leagues East of the Streights of Babelmandel, and in the 12th Degree of the Northern Latitude.

In the Northern America, near Hudscn's Streights, you will find Cape Worsnam, Cape Charles, and Cape Henry. In Virginia, another Cape Charles; and in an Island near the Coast of Flo­rida, the Cape of Canaveral.

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In the Southern America, Cabo de la Vela, up­on the Gulf of Mexico; and Cabo Raz, or North Cape, in Caribana. In Brazil, the Cape of St. Augustine; and further Southward, Cape Erio. On the South-side of the mouth of Rio de la Pla­ta, St. Anthony's Cape; and further Southward, St. Andrews Cape. Lastly, the Cape of Virgins, upon the Streights of Magellan; and the Cape of Victory, on the West end of those Streights.

Towards, and upon the Coast of Greenland, you may take notice of these Capes, first found out by the English. Viz. Cape Discord, Cape Farewell, Cape Christian, Cape Desolation, Cape Comfort, Cape Chidley, Cape Walsingham, &c. And so I have done with Capes, a Thing of great use to Mariners. Now I am resolved to divert you with Hills and Mountains.

You are more like to fright me with the Height and Steepness of them.

The highest Hill we know of is el Pi­co aforesaid, a prodigious high Hill of Tenariffe, one of the Canary Islands West of Africk. It has been reckoned by some 15. miles high, by others 40 and more, but with little credit. Wa­renius allows it to be 2. Leagues (that is six miles) high perpendicularly, and 'tis said that it may be seen 80 Leagues at Sea in a fair clear day. The form of it is Pyramidal, in shape agreeing to those Wonders of Art, the Egyptian Pyramids. The Top whereof ending in a sharp point, called the Pike of Tenariffe, is never without Snow.

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But there are other great Hills, famous not only for their Height, but also for their vast Extent. As in Europe, 1. The Alpes, that part Italy from France and Germany. 2. The Py­renees, that divide Spain from France. 3. The Apennine, that part Italy almost in the very middle. 4. The Carpathian Hills, extending from the Borders of Austria to the Black Sea, and so dividing Hungary, Transilvania, and Moldavia, from Poland. 5. Mount Haemus, reaching from the Gulf of Venice, as far as the Black Sea, and so parting Greece from Servia and Bulgaria. 6. The Dofrine Hills, a vast and continual Ridge of Mountains, which divide Norway from Sweden.

In the other Parts of the World, you have first in Asia, Taurus (of which Caucasus is a part) and Imaus, greater than any in Europe; That, running a vast way from West to East, and This from North to South. In Africk, Atlas, extending from the Atlantick Ocean a prodigi­ous way Eastward; besides the Mountains of the Moon, in the South parts. In the Northern A­merica, the Mountains of New Mexico, which run also North of Florida. And in the Southern America, the Andes, reaching from the North parts of Peru to the Streights of Magellan, a­bove three thousand Miles.

Those are, Philalethes, the greatest and most noted Mountains in the World. All of them generally of a Rocky Substance, and in most places overspread with Forests. None of [Page 70]them free from Snow, even in the heat of Sum­mer In short, they are all troublesom and very dangerous to travel over, by reason of their steep and tedious Ascents, narrow ways, and craggy Rocks, deep and dreadful Precipices, fierce Whirl-winds, and huge Balls of Snow which sometimes tumble down from the top with great noise and violence. And yet (which is Remarkable) amongst some of these dread­ful Hills, as the Alps, there are Valleys incre­dibly fruitful and temperate, with Towns and Villages in them. Generally these Hills are Impassable, except in a few Places, which therefore were by the Romans called Portae, or (from the Greek) Pylae, or Thermopylae. And, as from Lakes, so from these Mountains spring many of the greatest Rivers. Some produce Metals, as Gold, Silver, Iron, &c. and others produce none at all.

Now the lesser sort of Hills are commonly Sandy, Chalky, or Clammy. And some of these, as Mount Aetna in Sicily, Vesuvius in the Kingdom of Naples, and Hecla in Iseland are famous for those dreadful Fires which some­times do break out of them.

Pray, what's the cause of those fre­quent Eruptions of Fire and Vomiting of Flames?

The great Abundance of Sulphureous Matter contained in the bosom of those Hills, the Wind which gets in at the chinks blowing the Fire, and the Water on the other side ad­ding to the force of it.

Then 'tis to be supposed, that when the Combustible Matter shall be wasted, the Con­flagration shall cease.

Sure enough. And therefore in Ter­cera and St. Michael (two of the Azores Islands) there are now no such Fires to be seen as there has been formerly, but only now and then a Smoak: And 'tis observable, that in the As­cension Island and St. Helena the Soil is so like Ashes, that it may be credibly supposed there have been formerly some Fires of this kind.

But do you think, Sophronius, the Hills are of as old standing as the World?

For my part I am inclined to believe, the greatest Hills were created at first as they are. Not that I think (as some do) that God, having first made the Earth perfectly Round, without any hollowness, or one part higher than another, and then contrived hollow pla­ces in the Earth to contain the Waters, the Hills came of that Earth which made room for the Waters. For certainly as many more Mountains as there are in the World could not fill up all those Concavities.

And yet I am apt to think, that some Hills have been raised accidentally; as those Sandy Hills near the Sea in the Low Countreys, where­in are found many shells. For 'tis ve­ry probable, those Shells were carried thither with the Sand by some violent Winds, and af­terwards compacted together by succeeding Rains, and so hardened in process of time.

I confess 'tis not unlikely. Now I would sain know, Sophronius, whether or no there be Concavity's or hollow places, Windings and Turnings, Precipices, and the like, in the Bow­els of the Earth.

There's no doubt of it, if you con­sider the nature of Earth-quakes, and those Rivers that having run a good way under ground come up again.

What have you now to say as to For­rests and Desarts?

In Europe, the Forest of most note was the Hercynian Forest, which over-run not only a great part of Germany, but following the course of the Danube spread it self over Hungary and Transilvania, and from thence on the left hand over Poland and Moscovy. A Wood so formidable to the Romans, that when they had gone 60. days Journey through it, they came back, and durst not venture to search the end of it. But in Germany the great­est part thereof is long, since consumed, and no place there so much overspread with it as Bohemia. In Poland and Moscovy this Forrest is the most.visible, and in the last especially. Which is so over-run with it, that, when I was there an Attendant on the Right Honou­rable the Earl of Carlisle his Majesties Embas­sador to the Court of Moscovy, we travelled 15 hundred miles through that Countrey, and all within that Forrest. Next to which for Fame was the Forrest called Ardennes in the Lower [Page 73] Germany. Which in the time of Caesar extend­ed from the Rhine one way as far as Tournay in Flanders, and was in Compass at least 500. miles. An inconsiderable Length, you will say, in comparison to that of Hercynia. But now 'tis not above 30. Leagues in length reaching, but from Thionville in Luxemburg to Liege. And yet not all that Woodland neither, though within the Verge of that Forrest; there being in that Tract of Ground many Villages, and a great deal of Arable Land.

In short, I shall observe to you, that most of our European Forrests are of Fruitless Tree, as Oak, Beech, Pine, Juniper, Alder, and Maple­tree, of Elm, Ash, and Poplar-tree, but above all of Firr. Though there are some indeed of Olive, Orange, and Myrtle-trees. But in Asia, there are whole Forrests of Cedar, Cinamon, Nutmeg, and Clove-trees. In Africk, of Limon, Orange, Palme, and Tamarind-trees. And last­ly America is famous for its Cedars, but parti­cularly for that red and exceeding hard Wood called Brasil, from the name of a Country there which has whole Forrests thereof.

As to Desarts, or Wildernesses properly so called, they are either Sandy, Stony, or Moor­ish. In Europe we are little troubled with them. But in Asia there's enough of 'em, and espe­cially in that part of Arabia which from hence is called Arabia Deserta. A Countrey, (say's Melchior, who had travelled in it) where are sound neither Men nor Beasts, no, not so much [Page 74]as Birds or Trees, Grass or Pasture; but only Stony, High, and Craggy Mountains. In short, 'tis a wild Place, and full of vast Desarts, so wast and desolate, that such as travel there must carry their Provisions with them, and guide themselves in their Journey by the course of the Stars. 'Tis true that towards Euphrates, and near the Mountains of Arabia foelix, it has some few Towns, resorted to by Merchants. But this is only in those Parts. North-West of China there's a notable Desart, a Sandy one, called Xamo Desertum, the Desart of Lop, or Xamo; through some part of which runs Hoang, the great River of China. As for Africk, De­sarts are as common there as Forrests in Eu­rope. And there is a good Part of it, lying betwixt Biledulgerid Northward and the Negroes Land Southward, that is but a continual Desart. 'Tis that we call in Latin Lybia Deserta, or by the name of the Country Zara, which signifies a Desart or Wilderness. In America, 'tis said there are likewise vast Desarts, but we have as yet no good Account of them.

So, Philalethes, I shall conclude with these Reflections upon the different Nature of Coun­try's, as Parts of the Earth. For, whereas some Country's are Flat, and only set out with some pleasant little Hills here and there; others are Mountainous, full of huge Hills and dreadful Precipices. Some are Fat and Marshy, when others are Sand or Stony.

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Some Country's are fruitful, irrigated with fair and Navigable Rivers, and in short bless'd with all Necessaries; whilst others are barren, unhappy, and full of Desarts, fit only to bring forth wild and venomous Beasts. Some pro­duce one Thing, some another, according to that of Ovid,

Some Country's injoy a Temperate Air, as most Country's of Europe; whilst some are e'en Scorched by an extream Heat of the Sun, and others Frozen up almost all the Year round. And here it is that they have almost a continu­al Day-light for six Months, and as long a time of continual Darkness; whilst most part of the World enjoys in the space of 24 hours the more convenient and daily Vicissitude of Day and Night, more or less. Again, some Country's (but Islands especially) are ex­tremely subject to Fogs, Winds, Rain, and Change of Weather; whilst Country's remote from the Sea do commonly enjoy a purer Air, a more Serene Sky, and such Weather as is suitable to the Season. Those are commonly Unhealthful, and subject to divers Diseases; These nothing near so much. In fine, some Country's (as in the East) are much subject to Earth-quakes, some (as the Caribby Islands) to Hurricanes and dreadful Tempests, and others (as Sicily and Iseland) to Deluges of Fire.

The Fifth Discourse.

In our last Discourse I have given you, Philalethes, such an Account of the visible Earth, as might fill your Expectation. Now I shall make it my business to be as Accurate in the Description of the Waters, which (as I said before) make up together with the Earth the Terr-Aqueous Globe.

In order to which I must tell you in the first place, that, as the Earth is chiefly divided into Continents, Islands, and Peninsules, so are the Waters principally divided into Seas, Lakes, and Rivers.

By the Sea in general is meant that great Body of Waters which is thought to incompass the Earth on every side, and is properly called by the Name of Ocean. But there are par­ticular Seas, which flow out of the Ocean through a narrow Passage, and stretch them­selves a long way through several Country's, therefore called Inland Seas; as the Mediter­ranean, the Baltick, and Red-Sea, of which more afterwards.

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A Lake is a considerable Body of Waters, having no visible Intercourse with the Sea, or influx into it; as the Lake of Geneva.

A River is a Water-course issuing from some Spring or Lake, and continually running in its proper Channel, till it emptys it self, either into the Sea immediately, or else into a great­er River. The Place where it begins is called Spring, Head, or Source; where it runs into another, Fall, Influx, or Confluence; and where it loses it self in any Sea, that is pro­perly termed the Mouth of the River.

But next to Seas, Lakes, and Rivers, I must explain unto you these Words.

Viz.

• Gulf.
• Bay.
• Creek.
• Streight,
• Haven.
• Pond.
• Torrent.
• Brook.
• Spring.

A Gulf is properly a part of the Sea that makes a crooked or circling Shore of a large extent; as the Gulf of Bengala in the East-In­dies, and that of Mexico in America. A Bay is nothing else but a midling sort of Gulf; Though I confess there are great Gulfs which bear the name of Bay, as ( North of America) Baffins, Hudsons, and Buttons Bay. A Creek is a little Bay. A Streight is an Arm, or a narrow Pas­sage [Page 78]of a Sea; as the Streights of Magellan, Gibraltar, and the Hellespont. A Haven, or an Harbour, is a safe Place for Ships to ride at Anchor. A Pond, or Pool, is but a small Body of standing Waters, apt to be dryed up in Sum­mer, if not fed with some Spring or other. A Torrent is a rapid Water caused by some great Rain or Thaw, and so rushing down the Hills with great swiftness. A Brook, or Rivulet, is but a little running Stream, of a small extent. And by a Spring, or Fountain, is meant a little Stream immediately Springing out of the Ground.

Now, to follow the same Method we used in the Description of the Earth, I must give you, Philalethes, a particular Account of the Seas, Lakes, Rivers, &c.

The Ocean, which surrounds the World, may be divided, according to its four Quarters, into Northern, Eastern, Southern, Western. The Northern Ocean is that which lies North of Europe, Asia, and the Northern America; and so parts them from Terra Borealis. But it is also cal­led the Frozen Sea, as being commonly clog­ged with Ice in Winter-time. The Eastern lyes between Asia and America; called Eastern in respect to Asia. But about the Southern Ameri­ca it is best known by the name of Mar del zur, or South Sea, or by the name of Pacifick. The Southern Ocean ly's South of Asia, Africk, and America; and so parts them from Terra Austra­lis. The Western lies betwixt Europe and Africk of one side and America on the other side; cal­led [Page 79] Western, because it ly's West of Europe and Africk. But towards America it is named Mar del North, or the North Sea.

Now the Ocean has several particular Names, commonly taken from the adjacent Country's. So about Brittain it is called the Brittish Sea; about Ireland, Irish Sea; about the lower Germany, the German Sea, or the German Ocean; and about Spain, the Spanish Sea. To­wards the East-Indies it is named the Indian Sea. On the West side of Africk, from Atlas the great African Mountain, it bears the name of Atlan­tick Sea, or Atlantick Ocean; and towards Ae­thiopia, it is from hence called Aethiopick.

But besides the Ocean, there are some In­land Seas, into which the Ocean diffuses it self. As the Mediterranean, which runs Eastward from the Streights of Gibraltar above a thousand Leagues, betwixt Europe Northwards and Africk Southwards, as far as the Shore of Asia. There­fore 'tis called the Mediterranean (that is, the Midland) Sea, from the Latin Mare Mediter­raneum. And the Grecians upon the same ac­count termed it in their Language [...], that is the Inland Sea. By the Spani­ards it is usually called Mar di Levante, because it runs East from Spain. In the Scriptures it is called the Great Sea, as Numb. 34. where it is said, You shall have the great Sea for a Border. And that in opposition to the Dead-Sea and the Sea of Galilee, lying on the other side of the Land of Palestine, which are properly but Lakes of an indifferent compass.

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But, as the Camelion is said to apply it self to the colour of the nearest adjacent Body, so this Sea takes its denomination from the nearest Shores. And accordingly the Romans of old gave it these several Names; as Mare Hispanicum or Ibericum, Balearicum, Gallicum, Li­gusticum, Tuscum or Tyrrhenum, Liburnicum, Corsicum, Sardinium, Siculum, Ausonium, Ionium, Creticum, &c.

Then I was all this while under a great Mistake. For I took them all (for want of bet­ter skill) to be so many distinct Seas from the Mediterranean, and so could never find them out to fix them in my mind.

You see what it is to be left without a Guide in the dark.

But whereabouts is the Adriatick Sea?

The Adriatick is that which is called now a days from Venice the Gulf of Venice, a Sea (or Gulf) which runs up a great way North­west-ward, betwixt Italy of one side, part of Greece and Sclavonia on the other side.

'Tis properly but a Part (or Limb) of the Mediterranean, which makes an Excursion that way. And of this Mare Illyricum and Dalma­ticum were but Parts.

What Sea is that which is called the Aegean Sea?

The same that is now termed the Ar­chipelago, being likewise but an Excursion of the Mediterranean to the Northward. A Sea remark­able for its Swarm of Islands, and for parting [Page 81](so far as it runs) Europe from Asia. About the Island Myrtos, it was called Myrtoum; a­bout Icaria, Icarium; and so from Carpathus, it took the name of Carpathium.

Whereabout is the Propontis?

The Propontis, now called the Sea of Marmora, is a Sea that ly's betwixt the Archi­pelago Southward, and the Black Sea Northward; being parted from that by the Streights called Hellespont, or the Streights of . Gallipoly; and from this, by the Thracian Bosphorus, or the Streights of Constantinople. This Sea continues the Separation of Europe from Asia.

And so doth the Black Sea, otherwise called Pont Euxin, or the Euxine Sea. A huge Sea, that spreads it self a great way to the Eastward.

Doth not the Palus Maeotis lie hereabouts?

Right North from the Black Sea▪ there being but the Cimmerian Bosphorus, or the Streight of Caffa, between. A Sea much lesser than the Euxine, but bigger than the Propontis. And therefore the Name of Palus Maeotis, or Maeotick Fens, is a Name much below the greatness of it. It is now cal­led otherwise the Sea of Zabache, from a Fish of that name caught here at some times of the Year. Pliny calls it the Mother of the Sea, as if the Mediterranean had its Original from hence, and not from the Ocean. The same is also a Boundary betwixt Europe and Asia.

But in the North of Europe, and altogether within the Bounds of it, there is also an Inland [Page 82]Sea, commonly called the Baltick, and by the Durch Oost Zee, which washes on the North-side the Shore of Sweden, and on the South-side part of Denmark, Germany, and Poland. The same begins at the Streights called the Sund, and ends in two considerable Gulfs, the one called the Gulf of Bothnia, and the other the Gulf of Finland; from two Provinces of that Name about which they lye, both un­der the Crown of Sweden. The first of those Gulss, being the greater of the two, runs Northwards, and the other Eastwards. Fur­ther Northward, betwixt Lapland and Moscovy, you will find the White Sea, a pretty large Arm of the Northern Ocean, which runs from North to South.

Betwixt Asia and Africk is the Red Sea, o­therwise called the Sea of Mecca, or the Gulf if Arabia. This begins at the Streights of Ba­belmandel, from whence it runs Northward as far as the Isthmus of Sues, above 400 Leagues, but the breadth of it is not proportionable. This is the Sea so famous for the miraculous Passage of the Children of Israel, and the drown­ing Pharaoh King of Egypt.

Betwixt Arabia foelix and Persia ly's an In­land Sea commonly called the Persian Gulf, or the Gulf of Persia, or else the Gulf of Balsora, or the Gulf of Elcatif, from two Towns of the greatest note upon the Sea, that lying just up­on the fall of Euphrates into it Northward, and this 90. Leagues South of that in Arabia foelix. [Page 83]This Sea is a pretty large Arm of the Southern Ocean, which breaks in at the Streights of Mossandan, whilst the River Euphrates falls in at the other end. The continual clashing of which two great Waters makes this a turbulent and unruly Sea.

In the Northern America you will find as large a Sea as that by the name of Hudson's Bay, and the way to it through Hudson's Streights. From whence it runs full South, betwixt Estotiland Eastward and New South-wales Westward.

West from this Sea you will find Buttons Bay. And, about Terra Borealis, the Sea called Baf­fin's Bay.

Thus, Philalethes, you have a brief and ge­neral Account of the Seas. What remains is to give you an Account of their respective Gulfs and Streights.

The chiefest Gulfs of the Ocean, I mean such as do only make a circling Shore, are (in Europe) the little (but famous) Gulf in Hol­land called the Zuyder Zee, or South Sea, upon which Amsterdam is Seated; about France, the Aquitanick Ocean, so called from Aquitain, of which the Province of Guienne is a part; and about Spain, the Gulf of Cadiz. In Asia there is the Gulf of Ormuz, South of Persia; then the great Gulf of Bengala, in the Indies; the Gulf of Sian, further Eastward; the Gulf of Tun­quin, or Cochinchine, further towards China; that of Nanquin, in the North Parts of China; a great Gulf, North of Japon; and lastly, ano­ther [Page 84] large Gulf, on the North of Tartary. In Africk there is a great Gulf, towards Guinea. In America you will find St. Laurences Gulf, and the Gulf of Mexico, this last one of the great­est that are.

And, as the Ocean, so the Mediterranean has several remarkable Gulfs. As That of Va­lencia in Spain, the Gulf of Lyon in France, and on the Coast of Italy the Gulfs of Genoa, Gaeta, Naples, Salerno, Policastro, St. Eufemia, Squil­laci or delli Castelli, and Taranto. On the Coast of Greece, the Gulfs of Larta, Lepanto, Arcadia, Coron or Calamata, Colochina or Castel Rampani.

Those of the Gulf of Venice are, on the side of Italy, the Gulfs of Manfredonia and Trieste; and on the other side Those of Carnero, Naren­za, Drino, and Valona.

Those of the Archipelago, anciently so fa­mous in Greece, are now known by the Names of Napoli, Engia, Negroponte, Ziton, Armiro, Salonichi, Aiomama or St. Anna, Monte Santo, Contessa, and Caridia, all upon the Coast of Greece.

As to the Baltick Sea, besides the great Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland in which it ends, those of most note are the Gulfs of Lubeck, Dantzick, and Riga. And so I proceed to Streights.

From what has been said before it doth ap­pear that there are three sorts of Streights. Some that afford a Passage out of one part of the Ocean into another, some out of the Ocean [Page 85]into an Inland Sea, and others out of one In­land Sea into another.

Pray, let us have them all together.

As to Those that make way from one part of the Ocean into another, there is none of note either in Europe or Africk; Unless we should reckon in Europe the Channel for one, and the Irish Sea for another. In Asia there are many; as the Streights of Weygatz, betwixt No­va Zemla in Terra Borealis and some North Parts of the Asian Tartary; of Uriez,, near the Land of Jesso; of Zungar, betwixt Japon and Yupi, in Tartary; of Manille, South of a great Island of that name, the chief of the Philippine; of Ma­cassar, South of Celebes, another great Island in the Indian Sea; of Palambua, East of the great Is­land called Java; of Bantam, betwixt Java and Sumatra; of Malacca, betwixt Malacca in the Golden Chersonese and the Island Sumatra; and lastly of Chilao, betwixt the Indian Peninsule on this side Ganges and the Island called Ceylon. In America there's the Streights of Magellan, be­twixt the Southern America and del Fuego. To which we may add Mare Vermejo, or the Ver­milion Sea, betwixt New Mexico an Island of California; which (though never so long) is properly but a Streight of this nature.

Those that make way from the Ocean into Inland Seas are, in Europe, the Sund, which gives an entrance into the Baltick; and, be­twixt Europe and Africk, the famous Streights of Gibraltar (otherwise called only the Streights) [Page 86]which is an Inlet into the Mediterranean. In A­sia there is the Streights of Babelmandel, which afford a Passage into the Red Sea; and of Mos­sandan, into the Persian Gulf: North of America you will find the Streights of Davis, that lead into Baffin's Bay; and That of Hudson, which brings one into Hudson's Bay.

Lastly, there are three Streights that afford a Passage out of one Inland Sea into another. Viz. the Hellespont, now called the Streights of Gallipoli, and by the French les Dardanelles, or le Bras S. George, betwixt the Archipelago and the Propontis or Sea of Marmora. Then the Thracian Bosphorus, or the Streights of Constan­tinople, betwixt the said Propontis and the Eux­ine (or Black) Sea. Thirdly, Bosphorus Cimme­rius, now the Streights of Caffa, betwixt that Sea and Palus Maeotis.

Is not the Hellespont that little Channel about a mile broad, over which the Persian King Xerxes, intending to Invade all Greece, made a Bridge of Ships, and so wasted over his propigious Army of above two Millions of Men?

The very same. But a Sudden Tem­pest being risen, whereby this Prodigious Bridg was dangerously battered, Xerxes was so in­censed against this Sea, that he caused it to be beaten with 300. Stripes, and cast a pair of Fetters into it, to make it know to whom it was Subject. Yet at last his Fleet was so bro­ken both by the Valour of the Greeks and the [Page 87]Fury of the Sea, that he was fain to fly away over this Hellespont, and to make use of a poor Fisher-boat.

So the proud King was fain to stoop at last, and run away with shame. A very fit Reward for so extravagant a Pride.

Thus having taken a Survey of the Seas, Gulfs, and Streights, now we shall make (if you think fit) some Useful Reflections upon the Sea, and examine its Height, Depth, Colour, Tast, and several Mo­tions.

Do you believe, Sophronius, the Sea is higher than the Land, or no?

There are many that do, and who conclude it therefore a Miracle that the Land is not overflown. For my part, I do allow of a Globosity in the Sea, but not such as may indanger the Land, except where the Ground by the Sea-side is lower than ordinary. And in such a case the Inhabitants truly don't rely upon Miracles, but are fain to raise Banks in order to prevent an Invasion of the Sea, which never fails to incroach upon the Land when there is any way for it. But the very Course of the Rivers down to the Sea does manifestly prove the Sea to be no higher than the Land, but rather lower. In short, we must conclude, that, if the Sea were higher than the Rivers, that would certainly come down into their Channels, and drown not only the Land, but [Page 88]the Rivers. So natural it is for Water, where there is the least descent; to move that way, one part following still another without inter­mission.

I am very well satisfied as to this Point, Let us now proceed, if you please, to the Depth of the Sea.

Its Depth is very unequal. For, as the Land has Hills both great and small, Valleys, and Precipices; so there are in the Sea, Shelves, Rocks, Whirl-pools, and Places not to be fa­domed. To be short, the further from Land is the Sea, the deeper it is commonly; and in some places it has been found no less than five or six miles deep.

As for the Colour of the Sea, it appears ge­nerally to be of a Sky-colour. But North­ward it looks darkish; in the Torrid Zone, Brownish; and in some other Places, Whitish, and Yellowish.

I wonder, Sophronius, you should forget the Red Colour amongst all the rest. Or else how comes the Red Sea to be so cal­led?

Not from the Redness of the Waters, nor from that of the Sands, as some conceiv'd; the Sea and Sands being found by latter Obser­vation to be coloured here as in other places. But you must know this Sea was originally called the Sea of Edom, because it took begin­ning on the Coasts of that Countrey. Now [Page 89] Edom in Hebrew signifies Red, as appears Gen, 25.30. A Nick-name first given to Esau, and from him afterwards to Mount Seir or the Land of Edom, Gen. 36.31. and then to the Neighbouring Sea. Which by the Greeks was rendred Erythraeum, and by the Latines Rubrum. Whence the Name of the Red Sea became known to all, but the Reason of the Name to few.

So the White Sea in the Northern Parts of Eu­rope is probably so called, because it washes the Shore of White Russia or Moscovy. For I guess it must be from hence the Moscovites call it Bella More, and we accordingly White Sea. I am sure by my own Experience, that it cannot be from any Whiteness it has. Neither has the Black Sea took that Name from its Blackness; but either from the great Mists that arise from thence, or from the frequent Ship­wracks that happen there, the Shore being very dangerous by reason of its Rocks and Sands. How Mare Vermejo, or the Vermilion Sea, that runs betwixt the Northern America and the Island of California, came to be so cal­led, I am as yet to seek. But, towards Cabo Verde in Africk, the Atlantick Ocean looks so green with a kind of herb, that in calm wea­ther one would take it to be Land; and from that herb, which is something like Water-cres­ses, the Portugueze call this Sea Mare di Sar­gasso. In the Year, 1599. the Sea towards the Mouth of Rio de la Plata in the Southern Ame­rica [Page 90]appeared as red as Blood to the Hollanders that were upon that Road; but then it was oc­casioned by certain red Worms wherewith the Sea was covered, and which they saw swim up­on the Water.

Now from the Depth and Colour of the Sea I proceed to its Saltness. For it is generally Salt, but chiefly in the Torrid Zone; except where great Rivers disimbogue themselves in­to the Sea by several Mouth. And it is ob­servable, that the Salter the Sea is the heavier it is, and less apt to be frozen.

Lastly, there are several Motions of the Sea; and first a general Motion from East to West Se­condly, the Tide, or the Flux and Reflux, when the Sea flows in for some hours and then go's off a­gain. The Cause of which is Arcanum Naturae, a Secret of Nature, which puzzles still the ablest Philosophers. Now the greatest Tides are upon a Full Moon and New Moon, and likewise in the Spring and Fall. But in some Places the Flux is greater than in others, and there is some Seas where it is scarce discernable. The Baltick Sea has none, and the Mediterranean so little, that (except the Gulf of Venice) 'tis hardly to be seen. To be short, in most Pla­ces where there is a Tide, the Sea flows con­stantly during 6 hours and 12 minutes, and then ebbs in the same proportion of time. Where­as in the Garonne, one of the chief Rivers of France, 'tis flowing water during seven hours, and ebbing water but five. And towards Ze­nega, [Page 91]a branch of the River Niger in Africk, the Tide flows but four hours, and ebbs as long again.

The Sea has also some proper Currents in some Places. As between the Cape of Good Hope and Madagascar the great African Island; where the Sea moves Southwestward so strongly that it is hard to overcome that Current even with a fair Wind. Whereas from Madagascar to the Cape a Ship may come with ease by the savour of that strong Current without the help of any Wind. In the West Indies there is also a violent Current, that is the Streights of Baha­ma, so called from an Island of that name to­wards Florida. The same it is with those Pla­ces where great Rivers fall into the Sea. As betwixt Loango and Congo in Africa, where the great River Zaire empty's it self into the Ocean with such a rapidity, that no Ship (as my Author say's) can get above half a League a day forward towards the Shore.

I long to know the nature of Whirl­pools.

This is another Motion of the Sea, proper to some particular Places. As that of the Aegean Sea in the famous Euripus of old, betwixt Eubaea (an Island now known by the name of Negropont) and Achaia in Greece; Re­ported to ebb and flow seven times in one day. The Reason of which when Aristotle could not find, it is said (but hardly believed) that he threw himself into the Sea, with these words, [Page 92] Quia ego non Capio te, tu Copies me. Sicily has been also most famous for her Charybdis, a Gulf or Whirlpool, of which and Scylla oppo­site to it in Italy, many fabulous Things are re­ported by the ancient Poets. Wherefore Flo­rus the Historian calls the Fare of Messina, Fa­bulosis infame Monstris Fretum. However it is said of this Charybdis, that it attracts and de­vours all Vessels that come too nigh it, then casts up their Wracks at the Shore of Tauro­menium now called Taormina. And, as to Scyl­la, 'tis but a Rock that stands dangerously on the side of Italy, with many little Rocks that shoot out at the foot of it. On which the Wa­ter beating very strongly makes that Noise the Poets seigned to be the Barking of Dogs. Now the Passage between these two, being to un­skilfull Mariners exceeding Perillous, gave beginning to the Proverb,

‘Incidit in Scyllam cupiens vitare Charybdim.’

Upon the Coast of Normandy in France, and not far from Havre de Grace, there is a kind of Whirl-pool, which draws a Ship to it with great Force, but beats her off at last. But the greatest of all the Whirlpools we know of is the Maelstroom upon the Coast of Norway. This is some four Leagues about, and for the space of six hours it swallows up whatever comes near it, then brings it up again six hours after with a dreadful noise,

What other Motion of the Sea have you to speak of?

That which is caused by the Winds, And these (you know) when strong and violent, make the Sea rage and foam, with an hideous noise. A fearful Object to see this Element, which in a Calm looks like an Azure Field, become in a Storm a continual Series of tumbling Mountains and Abysses of Wa­ter.

Thus Ovid bemoans himself in his Book De Tristibus, where he makes an excellent De­scription of a Storm he met with in his way to Pontus.

I understand you, Sophronius; and cer­tainly a Man must be void of Sense, that ex­poses himself voluntarily to the Mercy of that Element.

Not so neither, Philalethes. The Sea, as well as the Land, was made for the service of Man, and from it we reap many great Ad­vantages. By the Sea we have the opportuni­ty of an Intercourse with the remotest Coun­try's. And, if all men had been of your Tem­per, how should so many fair Islands have been peopled that are now flourishing? In fine, if [Page 94]no Body had had Courage enough to venture upon the Sea, how should we be acquainted with the Wonders of it?

For my part, I confess I am not cut out for the Sea. I love to go upon sure Ground, and I am for that Element which is most pro­per for Mankind. In short, I like the Proverb, Praise the Sea, but keep on Land.

There is nothing to the World so for­midable, but one may use himself to it. If the Sea be sometimes troublesome and cruel, it is as often pleasant and delightful, and those that are used to it can hardly live from it.

Well, I wish 'em well to do. Trahit sua quemque Voluptas, every one as he likes. I have kit a puking Stomack, I cannot indure to be tossed. And, when all is done, those that go to Sea are in continual Danger of Fire, Water, and Pirats. If one be Sea-sick, what Agony? and what help is there for it? Who can expect a Relief in such a Case, either from those which are in the same condition, or from them who being in health do but make sport with the. Sick? What Cordial (think ye) is the smell of Pitch and Tar? What Lodging, a Hammock hung up in the Air, or a close and fusty Cabbin? It makes me dry to think of their Salt Vittles, and my Teeth (as strong as they are) tremble with the very Thoughts of cracking a Stone-hard Bisket, when I might have a new Roll at home. And, to di­gest those hard Vittles, what Place is there [Page 95]to walk in? A Deck so tossed to and fro, that every step one runs the hazard of a fall, and of a boisterous rude Sea about ones ears into the Bargain.

What a fine Speech you made now, Philalethes! I see you can make the worst of any Thing. But I am sorry to see you so un­manly, and all your Rhetorick serves only to set out your Faint-heartedness. I wonder how you dare venture to go along the Streets, for the Tiles may chance to tumble upon your head; and how can you with a safe consci­ence walk the length of your Room, when who knows but that you may shake the Foundations of the House? I see you are in a Fright, and therefore let us leave the Sea, to take a view of the chief Lakes and Rivers. But you must know before-hand, Phi­lalethes, that some of them are like so many Seas.

'Tis no matter. Their Name is not so formidable.

What think you then of the Caspian Sea in Asia, which in truth is but a Lake, but bears the name of Sea by reason of its vast Compass, being no lest than 260 Leagues long, and at least an 100 broad?

This is a fine Lake indeed.

The Greatest we know of. Next to which there is another (according to Sansons Maps) about half the bigness of that, called by the name Carantia, which he places almost [Page 96]in the heart of the Asian Tartary. In Africk you will find the grat Lakes of Zaire and Zaf­lan. In the Northern America, the Karegnondi, and other Lakes adjoyning to it, the length of which is not yet fully discovered. And. in the Southern America, the great Lake of Parime, through the South part of which runs the E­quinoctial. This is at least 120 Leagues in length, and 50 where broadest.

Our Europe also is stocked with a great many fine Lakes. As in Moscovy the Ladoga, and the Onega; and in Sweden, the Wener. And about the bigness of these are the Beruan, in the Asian Tartary; Chiamay, in the East Indies; the Lakes of Niger, Borno, and Guarda, in Africk; Ontorio, Eric, and the Lake of Nicaragua, in the Northern America; Lago de los Xarayes, Cassipa, and Ti­ticaca, in the Southern America.

I pass by the Lakes of Constance and Geneva, of Ilmen in Moscovy, the Dead Sea in Palestine, and a great many other of good note in all Parts of the World. Which, though they be lookt upon as great Lakes, if compared to those of the lesser sort, yet are much inferiour to the foresaid in bigness.

And, as Lakes differ in Bigness, so they do in Figure. For some are Round, some Long, and others Oval.

Is their Water sweet, or not?

It is sweet for the most part. But there are some indeed whose Water is Salt; as the Caspian Sea aforesaid, and the Dead Sea in [Page 97] Palestine. And this must be either by some secret Intercourse.they have with the Sea, or else by some Salt Springs thereby these Lakes are fed.

One Thing, Philalethes, is remarkable about the Lake Leman (otherwise called the Lake of Geneva) which is about 16 Leagues in length, and 4 broad where it is broadest; That, where­as both Lakes and Rivers do generally de­crease in Summer-time, this Lake swells most in the heat of that Season. And the chief rea­son they give for't is the Thawing of the Snow, which comes down into it from several parts of the Alps.

But how came the Dead Sea in Pa­lestine by that name?

'Tis thought it came to be called Sea by reason of its Length and Saltness, being a­bout 70. miles long and 16. broad, and fur­nishing with Salt the whole Country. But it is called the Dead Sea, in Latin Mare Mortuum, either because it has no visible Efflux, or be­cause no living Creature is nourished in it, by reason of the bituminous savour it sendeth forth, from whence it has been called Asphal­tis and Asphaltites. Near this Lake it was that stood once the infamous City's of Sodom and Gomorrah, before they were consumed with Fire and Brimstone.

Now you must know, that many Rivers spring from Lakes, and that Lakes are fed with Rivers. So that there is a great and per­petual [Page 98]Intercourse betwixt Lakes and Ro­vers

I am now pretty well acquainted with Lakes, and I would gladly know what you have to say about the Rivers.

The Principal Rivers of Europe are, in Spain, the Douro, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalqui­vir, and Ebro; in France la Loire, la Seine, le Rhone, la Garonne; in Italy, the Po; in Germa­ny, the Danube, the Rhine, the Elb, the Oder, and the Wesel; in Poland, the Nieper, and the Duna; in Moscovy, Volga, Tanais, Duina.

In Asia there is the Euphrates, in the Turks Dominions; Indus, Ganges, and Menan, in the East-Indies; Kiang, and Hoang, in China; Gham­mas according to Sanson, Oby, and the Volga a­foresaid, in Tartary. In Africk you will find Nilus, Nubia, Niger, Zaire, Zambeze, Zambe­re and Rio de Spiritu Santo, or the Holy-Ghost River.

In the Northern America, the Canada, or St. Laurences Rives, Chucagua, and Rio del Norto or the North River. And in the Southern, the Orenoque, the Amazone, Rio de la Plata, Rio Pa­rana, and Rio Desaguadero. Amongst which the Amazone is a most prodigious River, and the greatest of the Known World.

Now there is this common amongst Rivers, I mean their Windings and Turnings, whereby the Land is most conveniently watred and ir­rigated. And the great Rivers, which are on­ly to be found in Continents, swell into their [Page 99]bigness by the continual Influx of lesser Rivers that empty themselves into them as they run down their Channels towards the Sea, the ge­neral Rendezvous of all Rivers. From whence it comes to pass most commonly, that fur­ther a River runs from its Spring, the larger it grows still.

Again, as some Rivers are remarkable, for their Length and Breadth, so there are some of a notable Swiftness; as the Rhone, the Rhine, and Danube in Europe; the Euphrates, and Ti­gris in Asia; the Zaire, in Africk; the Sague­nay, a River of New France in the Northern A­merica; and the Amazone, in the Southern. A­mongst which the Saguenay, though but a mean River, is reported to be of so strong a Current, that it suffers not the Sea to flow up its Chan­nel; so deep, that in many places it attains to a 100. fathoms. And, which is observable, the same is narrower at the Influx of it into the great Canada than it is at the very head. A Thing quite contrary to the general Rule.

Some Rivers run under Ground more or less in the midst of their Course, and at last come up again as new Rivers. Such are the Guadiana and the Rhone in Europe, Tigris in Asia, Niger and Nubia in Africk.

Some spread themselves into the form of a Lake, as the Tanais and Oby. And others cross a Lake with so swift a course, that they preserve themselves distinct from the Waters of it; as the. Rhone aforesaid, which coming down [Page 100]the Alpes falls into the Lake Leman, and ha­ving run through the whole length of it from East to West comes out at Geneva.

Some Rivers have great Cataracts or Falls, as the Rhine betwixt Bilefelt and Shaffausen, the Rhone betwixt Geneva and Lyon, and la Somme betwixt Amiens and Abbeville. So 'tis said of the River Nilus in Africk, that in two several. places it falls amongst Rocks with so terrible a noise that the Neighbouring People grow deaf with it.

Pray, let us hear something of their Fall into the Sea.

Many of the greatest Rivers fall in through several Mouths, as the Danube and Nilus, which have no less than seven each of them. And Olearius, in his Travels through Tartary to Persia, tells us of 70. Mouths through which the River Volga (that I have been upon several times) disburdeneth it self, after a winding Course of a thousand leagues into the Caspian Sea.

But there are some Rivers, and commonly small ones, that neither fall into other Rivers, nor yet into the Sea; but either lose them­selves in the Ground, or turn into a Lake.

Are all Rivers of the same Colour as ours are?

They are generally so. But yet there be some of a blackish colour, some whitish, and others reddish. Of this last sort was the Adonis a River of Phaenicia in Syria, which [Page 101]rises out of Mount Libanus, and falls into the Sea 6. miles South of Barut. This River in Summer-time used to contract a kind of; Red­ness, occasioned by the Winds, which then blowing most vehemently did thereby carry down the Stream a great quantity of minium or red Earth from the sides of the Hills where­with the Water was discoloured.

Is not this the River which was report­ed (as Lucian has it) to stream blood, when the obsequies of Adonis the Darling of Venus were yearly celebrated?

The very same. Thus a natural Acci­dent was made use of to give the better co­lour to the Superstition, as if Adonis's Wounds did bleed every year.

Now, as to the Tast of River-Water, are all Rivers sweet as ours are.

'Tis to be observed first, that all Ri­vers subject to the Tide have a Tast of the Sea­water, especially near their Fall into the Sea; and, so far as the Tide go's, they have a brack­ish kind of Tast. But there are other Rivers, that have a brackish and mineral Tast upon a­nother Account, that is from such Minerals as they meet in their Course.

You know that Rivers are apt to over­flow after a great Rain or Thaw, as it fre­quently happens either at the beginning or at the latter end of Winter. But I have heard of a more general and constant Overflowing of some great Rivers beyond Sea, which I much, admire at.

'Tis this overflowing upon which de­pends the Want or Plenty of those Countrys. And the River Nilus, amongst others, is as fa­mous for that as it is for its Crocodiles. In May, says Thevenot, it begins to flow, and so increases every day some Inches till die latter end of September, or the beginning of October. At which time it begins to fall, and is as long eb­bing as flowing. In the Year 1658. it increa­sed (according to the same Author who was then in the great Caire) to the height of al­most 22 Pics, each Pic at 24 Inches. And then the River began to decrease the 23d. of September.

What becomes in the mean time of the Inhabitants and their Cattle during this great Land-Flood? For Egypt at that time must needs look like a Sea.

They retire upon Hills, and there a­bide till the decrease of the Waters, holding still a Commerce by the Intercourse of Boats.

Now, as it happens sometimes that we have some Years too wet and others too dry; so, if Nilus overflows too much or too little, Aegypt do's suffer for't. Unless it rise to 16 Pics, 'tis a bad Year; and when it do's rise to 24. 'tis as bad. But, if it chance at any time not to o­verflow at all, 'tis worst of all. For then it does not only presage a Famine in Egypt, but (as some will have it) prognosticates a Change in the State. And accordingly 'tis said that in [Page 103]the tenth and eleventh Years of Cleopatra, a little before her Fall with her Sweet-heart An­tonius, the River increased not at all.

This is indeed very Remarkable. But, when the Water of Nilus is withdrawn to its natural Channel, I suppose the Ground is ve­ry Slimy, having lain so long under Water.

So very Slimy, that whereas we are fain to dung our Grounds, the Egyptians throw Sand upon theirs before they Sow or Plant any thing. And of this Slime is ingendred many living Creatures, and as some say) such innumerable heaps of Frogs, that if the Country were not furnished as it is with a proportionable number of Storks, by whom they are greedily devoured, the Plague of Frogs would come a second time upon the In­habitants.

Is it true that it never rains in E­gypt?

Tis a Vulgar Error, strongly confuted by Monsieur Thevenot; Who affirms that it rains much in Alexandria and Rosetta, but not indeed so much in the, City of Caire. However, he says, that he has seen it rain there two days together very hard, and with great Thunder-claps in the Month of December.

The Sixth Discourse.

Besides the Natural Division of the World into Earth and Waters, there is a National Division of it, which is to be the Subject of our present Discourse.

And, to make it clear to ye, you must know first, the World is divided into two Prin­cipal Parts, the Known and the Unknown World. The Unknown World, or that Part of the World which is yet Unknown to us, lies about the Poles, but the great­er Part towards the Southern Pole. That Part which lies towards the North Pole is cal­led in Latin Terra Borealis, or Terra Polaris Arcti­ca; and the other Part that lies towards the South Pole, Terra Australis, or Terra Polaris Antarctica.

The Known World is usually divided into four Parts, Europe, Asia, Africk and America. But it is a most unequal Division, and I think it more rational to divide it thus. Viz. the Known World, first into two Parts, the Old and the New World; then the Old World into three, Europe, Asia, and Africa; and the New into two, the Northern and Southern America. For, as the Old World do's visibly consist of three [Page 105]distinct Peninsules, so is the New as clearly divided by Nature into two other Peninsules, holding proportion with the former. Thus the Known World shall be divided (if you will) into five Parts.

Viz.

• EUROPE;
• ASIA,
• AFRICA,
• The Northern AMERICA.
• and The Southern AMERICA.

How comes that Distinction of Old and New World, when they are both of a Date?

That Distinction came into use since America was first discovered. For then it be­gun to be called, and that most aptly, the New World; New, for the late Discovery; and World, for the vast Greatness of it.

Which of these five Parts is the big­gest?

Asia is the biggest, Europe the least. For this is little above half the compass of Asia. And yet from East to West, as from the Cape of Finisterra in Spain to Constantinople in Greece, 'tis no less than 950. Leagues; and from North to South, as from the North Cape in Lapland to Cape Matapan in the most Southern part of Greece, 750.

Whereabouts doth Europe lye in respect to the other Parts?

Europe is bounded on the North with the Northern Ocean, which separates it from Terra Borealis; Westward, with the Western Ocean, which parts it from America; South­wards, with the Streights of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, whereby it is divided from A­frick; Eastward it is parted from Asia by all those Seas and Streights that run up succes­sively Northward from the Mediterranean. But from Palus Maeotis upward, the Bounds are uncertain, and not yet agreed on amongst Geo­graphers. The Ancients, I know, made the River Tanais a Boundary as far as it would go: But they were so little acquainted with these Parts, and with the Course of that winding River, that to follow them here were to follow a blind Guide. For my part I will not presume to prescribe any Bounds. But, if I were to chuse, I would on­ly draw a line from the most Northern part of the said Palus Maeotis North-East-ward as far as the Gulf of Petzora, a little on this side the Streights of Weygatz.

I should be loth either to contract Europe so much as to confine it within the Bounds of the White Sea, as some do; or to overstretch it, as others do, as far as the River Oby, where­by they edge into Europe a good part of the A­sian Tartary.

So you are for a Medium.

I am so.

But how comes Europe to be so cal­led?

Don't you know the old Story, Eu­rope from Europa the Daughter of Agenor King of Phaenicia? Which Lady Europa Jupiter brought to Creet, and so she gave the name to Europe. A very credible Story, that Jupiters bringing of that Lady from Phaenicia to so small a part of Europe as the Isle of Creet where she came should give denomination to all this Part of the World.

For my part I should rather think the name of Europe to be derived from a Maritime Pro­vince of Thracia so called, and that those of Asia gave the name of Europe to this Part of the World, according to the name of that Pro­vince which lay nearest to them. Just so the Europeans gave the name of Asia to that other Part of the World from one small part of it called Asia, which lay next to Greece. And in the same manner the Romans called Africk so, after the name of that particular Province or Part thereof which they brought first under their Obedience.

What makes us put always Europe first, when we speak of the chief Parts of the World? I would fain know how this little Part came to that great Preferment.

The best Reason I know for it is, that we love to prefer our selves. Because we are born and live in Europe, therefore Europe must march in the Front. Though Asia by right, and that upon such Grounds as you shall see afterwards, should have the Precedency. But I [Page 108]suppose they will scarce fall out about it.

And yet one might say much in the behalf of Europe, as it is now improved. Europe so ge­nerally fruitful, temperate, and populous; so extremely improved in all Arts both Liberal and Mechanical. Europe famous besides for having Ruled a long time over Asia and Africk, during, the Greek and Roman Mo­narchy's. Famous for its wonderful Discove­ries and Conquests (not to say Invasions) of the New World in these latter Ages. To which we may add that great Prerogative we have above the rest of the World, the Christian Faith.

Now you have done Europe a good turn, and 'twere pity but Europe should consi­der it. But which of the Sons of Noah first peopled it after the Deluge?

Whilst Shem peopled Asia, Cham A­frick, the Isles of the Gentiles (says Moses, Gen. 10.) were divided amongst the Sons of Ja­phet. Now by these Isles is understood Europe, a great part whereof doth indeed consist of Is­lands and Demi-Islands. Nor was the Name and Memory of Japhet so much forgotten by the Children which descended of him, but that the Greeks who were the first of their Eu­ropean Plantations retained it a long time in their Japetus, the Son (as they said) of Caelum and Terra, and Father of the wise Prometheus.

Pray what's the meaning of God's Promise unto Japhet, that he would make him dwell in the Tents of Shem?

The same is to be understood both in a literal and mystical Sense. In the first Sense the Promise was fulfilled, when the Po­sterity of Japhet, both Greeks and Romans, sub­dued Judaea or the Land of Canaan, and the Eastern Parts promised to and possessed by the Seed of Shem. And in the second Sense, when it pleased God to break down the Partition-Wall, and to Incorporate the Gentiles of the House of Japhet into the Body of the Church, which for a long time was restrained to the Line of Shem.

Now we shall proceed, if you please, to the Division of the five Parts of the World into their Principal Countrys.

As for Europe, this is my general Di­vision thereof. Viz.

Into

• Spain,
• France,
• Great Brittain and Ireland,
• Germany,
• Italy,
• Turky,
• Poland,
• Tartary the lesser,
• Moscovy, or Russia,
• Sweden,
• Norway,
• Denmark.

In Spain you will find the Kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. In Great Brittain, the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, and the Principality of Wales.

[Page 110]

In Germany, besides the Emperors Domini­ons (consisting chiefly of the Arch-Dukedom of Austria, part of. Hungary, and the Kingdom of Bohemia) you will find both the Dukedom and Upper Palatinate of Bavaria, Suaben, Swisserland, Alsace, the Lower Palatinate of the Rhine, Franconia, Hesse, the Low-Country's, Westphaly, Saxony, Brandenburg, and Pomeren.

In Italy there are the Kingdom of Naples; the Pope's Land, the Dukedom of Tuscany, the States of Genoa and Luca, the Principality of Pie­mont, the Dukedoms of Milan, Mont-ferrat, Mantua, Parma, Modena, and the State of Venice, besides the Islands and Kingdoms of Sicily and Sardinia.

Turky in Europe comprehends 1. all Greece, di­vided into Thracia, Macedon, Albania, Epirus, Thessaly, Achaia, Peloponesus, besides the Islands, amongst which Creet (now Candia) and Eu­boea (now Negroponte) are the chiefest. 2. Moe­sia, containing Servia, Bulgaria, and Bessarabia. 3. the South parts of Podolia in Poland, and Caf­fa in the Taurick Chersonese. 4. Bosnia, with the greatest part of Hungary, Sclavonia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. And lastly, though the Grand-Signior be not fully possessed of Moldavia, Va­lachia, and Transylvania, yet the respective Princes thereof are Tributary to Him. And so is the Cham of Tartary the lesser.

As to the Kingdom of Norway, it belongs to the Crown of Denmark; and the greatest part of Livonia, to Sweden. The great Dukedom [Page 111]of Lithuania is united to the Crown of Poland, Lapland is divided betwixt the Czar of Moscovy and the Kings of Sweden and Denmark; Savoy, within the Alps,, belongs to the Duke of that Name. Adjoyning to which is Valesia, and the Country of Grisons.

Now most of the Country's aforesaid are subdivided into several Provinces, and some of these into lesser Parts. But I shall forbear at present those Subdivisions, and leave that till another time. My Design is only to give you a general Account of the World, till I have more time to come to Particulars.

Then let us proceed to Asia.

Asia, the greatest of the five Parts of the World, is a Peninsule almost as big again as Europe, and every way incompassed by the Oce­an, except on the West side. Northwards the Ocean parts it, as it doth Europe, from Terra Borealis; Eastwards, from America; and South­wards, from Terra Australis. Then on the West 'tis bounded with the Red Sea, which parts it from Africk; Next to that, with the narrow Isthmus of Sues, where Asia joyns to Africk; afterwards, with the East end of the Mediter­ranean; and lastly, with those Seas, and Streights, &c. that part it from Europe, for which I refer you thither.

The same, as I hinted before, was first cal­led Asia by the Europeans from the nearest part to Greece called by that name. Which spread it self from that Lydian Asia to Asia properly [Page 112]so called whereof that was, but a Part, the proper Asia to the whole Body of Anatolia, and this to the whole Continent. Now this being known by the name of Asia occasioned the Distinction of Asia the greater and Asia the lesser, by which last name Anatolia is still cal­led amongst us.

Now, Sophronius, let me know upon what Grounds Asia should have (as you think) the Precedency.

Not to insist upon the Largenest of its Extent, or the Riches of its Soil, I think Asia ought to be had in special honour for these Reasons following. First, for the Crea­tion of Man, who had his first making in this Part of the World. For here stood the Gar­den of Eden, the first place of his Habitation, and from hence all Nations of the World had their first beginning. Secondly, because here flourished the two first great Monarchies of the Assyrians and Persians; the first signified by the Image with the Golden Head in Daniel, and the last by the Arms and Breast of Silver. Thirdly, because it was the Scene of almost all the memorable Actions recorded in the Scrip­tures. And lastly, because that here our Sa­viour Christ was born, wrought his Divine Miracles, and accomplished the great Work of our Redemption.

I am very well satisfied with your Rea­sons. The next Thing I desire to know is the Division of Asia.

Asia is chiefly divided

Into

• Turky in Asia,
• Arabia,
• Persia,
• India,
• China,
• Tartary,

Besides the Islands.

Turky in Asia comprehends 1. Asia the less, or Anatolia, now called by contraction Natolia, which anciently was divided into these Provinces so noted in History. Some Maritime ones, as Pontus, Bithynia, Phrygia the lesser, Mysia, Aeolis and Ionia, Caria and Do­ris, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia. And these In­land Provinces, Viz. Isauria, Armenia the les­ser, Cappadocia, Galatia, Paphlagonia, Phrygia the greater, Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia. 2. It contains Armenia the greater, now called Turcomania. 3. Chaldea, Assyria, and Mesopo­tamia, which three Provinces together did properly and originally constitute the Assyrian Empire. 4. Syria and Palestine; the first con­taining Syria propria, Coelo-Syria, Phoenicia, Pal­myrene; and Palestine being otherwise called the Land of Canaan, or the Land of Promise, Judaea, and Israel. The Northern part of which, when possessed by the Tribes of Asser, Nephtha­lim, Zabulon, and Issachar, went properly by the name of Galilee, 5. part of Arabia.

Now Arabia is divided into Petraea or Stony, [Page 114]Deserta or Desart, and Faelix or Happy, this last of a vast extent.

Persia, a large Continent, was anciently di­vided into Persis, Susiana, Carmania, Gedrosia, Drangiana, Aria, Arachosia, Paropamisus, Par­thia, Hyrcania, Margiana, and Bactria. To Persia may be also referred Media and Georgia. Media contained Atropatia, and Georgia com­prehended Iberia, Colchis, and Albania.

India was divided from the River Ganges into India intra Gangem or India on this side Ganges, and India extra Gangem or India beyond Ganges, Here is, amongst other Kingdoms the vast Em­pire of the great Mogol.

China and Tartary are also two vast Conti­nents, but this last especially, which altoge­ther takes up above one third part of Asia.

As for the chief Islands of Asia, you have had an Account of them in the fourth Discourse. So I shall proceed to a general Account of Africk.

I am ready to hear you

Africk, a compleat Peninsule, is boun­ded on the North with the Streights of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, which part it from Eu­rope; on the South, with the Southern Ocean, which separates it from Terra Australis; East­ward, with the Ocean likewise for the most part, then with the Red-Sea which parts it from Asia, and lastly with the foresaid Isthmus of Su­es where it joyns to Asia, and without which Africk would be a compleat Island.

[Page 115]

It contains in chief

• Berbary,
• Biledulgerid,
• Zara,
• The Negroes Land,
• Guinea,
• Congo,
• Cafraria,
• Monomotapa,
• Monomugi,
• Zanguebar,
• Abissinia,
• Nubia,
• Egypt.

Barbary, which runs as Far as Aegypt along the Mediterranean, contains the Kingdom of Morocco Westward upon the Atlantick Ocean, the Kingdom of Fesse partly upon that Ocean, partly upon the Streights and the Mediterrane­an. Then, still going Eastward, you will find the States of Algier, Tunis, Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Barca. Now Mauritania took up the Western Part of Barbary. And, as the King­dom of Tunis was the Africa propria of the An­cients, so you will find their Cyrehe and Mar­marica in the Kingdom of Barca.

Biledulgerid, anciently called Numidia, be­ing part of Lybia Interior, ly's South of Barbary; and runs also from West to East, as far as Aegypt. Zara or Libya Deserta, anciently coun­ted likewise as part of Libya Interior, ly's South of Biledulgerid.

South of that you will find the Negroes Land, which runs also a great way from the Atlan­tick Eastward, and is divided into several King­doms. [Page 116]And Southward is Guinea, a Sea Coast Country. The first of note, amongst other Things, for the Negroes that are commonly imployed in the New World, to do the Euro­peans Drudgery. This, for the Gold that is brought from thence.

Congo, Cafraria, Monomotapa, and Monomu­gi went all amongst the Ancients under the name of Aethiopia Inferior; Zanguebar and A­bissinia, under that of Aethiopia Superior.

Congo contains several Kingdoms, which I forbear to mention, because of no great Note. Cafraric is a Sea-Coast Country that extends it self from Angola (part of Congo) as far as the Cape, of Good. Hope Southward, and from thence as far as Zanguebar Eastward.

Monomotapa and Monomugi are two Inland Country's of Africk, lying, within the Compass of Cafraria. But Zanguebar is a Sea-Coast Country towards the East.

Abissinia is a vast Empire, divided into seve­ral Kingdoms, and whereof the Western part is watered by the River Nilus. Nubia ly's West and North of Abissinia; and the Desart of Barca, or Libya Marmarica, North of Nubia.

Egypt, which next to Barbary is the most no­ted and frequented Country of Africk, is bound­ed Eastward with the Isthmus of Sues and the Red-Sea, Westward with Barca and the Desart of that name, Northward with the Mediterra­nean, and Southward with Nubia and Abissinia.

[Page 117]

Thus much for the Old World. And now I come to the New, otherwise known by the Name of America, or else the West Indies.

I remember you told me before, the New World was called New, for the late Dis­covery; and World, for the vast Greatness of it. Pray, how long is it since it was first disco­vered?

'Tis almost two hundred years ago, and the first Discoverer of it was Christopher Columbus, an Italian born, of Genoa. He be­ing a Man of great ability's, and born to un­dertake great Matters, could not perswade himself, when he considered the Motion of the Sun, but that there was another World to which this Glorious Planet did impart both his Light and Heat, when he went from us. This World he resolved to seek after, and accor­dingly in the year 1486. he opened his De­sign to the State of Genoa. But, the business being slighted there, he sent his Brother to the Court of England. Who unluckily fell in his way hither into the hands of Pirates, and was by them detained a long while. However he got his Liberty at last, and so came over to En­gland, where his Proposition was so well re­lished, that Columbus was sent for to take mea­sures with him. But he, not having heard a long time from his Brother, conceived the Offer of his Service to have been neglected, and had already made his Address to the Court of Spain. [Page 118]At that time Reigned King Henry VII. here, and Queen Isabella in Spain. Where Columbus at last, with much ado, and after many de­lays, had three Ships furnished, not so much for Conquest as for Discovery.

How came he at last to compass his Design?

Being furnished with the Ships afore­said, he ventured upon the main Ocean, steer­ing his Course to the Westward. Two whole Months did he float upon this unknown Sea, before he could see any Land. Insomuch that his Men began to Mutiny, and refused at last to go on. He promised them to return again, if they did not see Land in three days. They agreed. And, as Providence would have it, on the third day, they discovered the Island Gua­nahani, in the 24th Degree of Northern Lati­titude. There having Landed, he took pos­session of it for the Crown of Spain, October 11. Anno 1492. and called it St. Salvador, which is S. Saviour. Afterwards he discovered and took possession of Hispaniola, and with much treasure and applause returned into Spain. Preferred for this good Service, first to be Admiral of these Indies, and afterwards to a Coat of Arms with this Motto, For Castille and Leon Columbus has got a New World, and in con­clusion to the Title of Duke de la Vega.

The next year he returned thither, discove­red the Islands of Cuba, Jamaica, and His­paniola, and in this last built the Town now [Page 119]called St. Domingo. In the Year 1497. (the same year that Vasquez de Gama found out the Passage by Sea to the East Indies, a happy Time for Discovery's) he went another Voyage, in which he discovered amongst other Places Pa­ria in the Firm Land. And in the year 1500. he began his fourth and last Voyage, which he performed without adding much to his former Discoveries. At last he died in Spain, in the year 1506; and was honourably Interred at Sevil.

But, though Columbus be dead, yet Columbus's Fame shall live to all Posterity's. 'Tis he we are indebted to for the Advantage we have of seeing clearly those Things which either were Unknown, or but blindly guessed at by the An­cients.

Next to Columbus, John Cabot a Venetian (the Father of Sebastian Cabot) discovered a great part of this Continent, in behalf of Hen­ry VII of England. For in the year 1497. he found out all the North-East Coasts hereof from Florida Southward to New-found-Land and Ter­ra di Laborador in the North. Then came A­mericus Vesputius, a Florentine, imployed there­in by Emanuel King of Portugal, Anno 1501. on a design of finding out a nearer way to the Molucca's than by the Cape of Good Hope. And, though he passed not further than the Cape of St. Augustine in Brasil, yet from him (to the great Injury and Neglect of the first Discoverers) this Continent has got the Name of America.

[Page 120] ‘Sic Vos non Vobis fertis Aratra Boves.’

Indeed this is a great piece of Ingrati­tude. But Usus invaluit, and now it is past cure.

I have but this more to tell you upon the Subject of this Discovery, that after A­mericus there came several private Adventurers and Undertakers out of all parts of Europe bor­dering on the Ocean. Amongst whom Magel­lan was the first that compassed the whole World, and found the South Passage called from him the Streights of Magellan. Wherein he was followed by Drake and Cavendish of England. Thus this New World became a Prey to Europe, but to Spain especially. Thus the Natives were invaded, and (till the time of Charles V.) Millions of them destroyed by the Spaniards Cruelty, who, to secure their Usurpation, and satiate their Avarice, laid aside all sense of Religion and Humanity it self, and so made Christianity a Bug-bear to those naked Heathens.

‘Auri Sacra Fames, quid non mortalia cogis Pectora?’

But the Blood of these poor People cry's for Vengeance still. And 'tis observable already how the Monarchy of Spain, which was so formidable but in the last Century, has been almost ever since Charles the Fifth's time in a de­clining [Page 121]condition. First overpowred by the Hollanders, then by the English, and lately by the French.

I love to take notice of great Men. Pray, what was that Magellan who first Sailed round about the World?

He was a noble Portugueze, well skil­led in Navigation. Who, upon some Discon­tents received in the Court of Emanuel King of Portugal, made offer of his Service to Charles the fifth King of Spain, and undertook the finding out a shorter cut to the Molucca's than had been discovered. Which he effected in the year 1520. by his Discovery of those narrow Seas, from him called the Streights of Magel­lan, whereby he at last entred from the North into the South-Sea.

And, to give you a Description of those Streights, I shall tell you in the first place, that they are in the 53. Degree of Southern Latitude, about 100. Leagues in length, with high Hills on both sides always covered with Snow. The Passage, as it is tedious and unpleasant, so it is very dangerous. For here the Sea ebbs and flows with a violent swiftness, and the very first fall into it is extremely doubt­ful and hazardous. And then it is a Place of that Nature, that which way soever a man Steer his Course, (as I told you before, speak­ing of the Winds) he shall be sure to have the Wind against him. Besides that the Course of the Water, says John Davis, is so full of Turnings [Page 122]and Changings, and those so violent, that when a Ship is entred there is no returning. To which add, that the Channel is so very deep (in some places no less than 300. fadoms) that there's no hope of Anchorage.

In short, it was a whole month, ( viz. from the latter end of October to the end of Novem­ber) before Magellan could be clear of these Narrow Seas. From whence he sailed at last to the East-Indies. But there he was the year following unfortunately slain. And, of five Ships that he set out with, there was but one (by a happy Omen called Victoria) that re­turned to Spain in safety. The Commander of that Ship was Sebastian del Cano, who after a very long and dangerous Voyage (wherein it was thought he had Sailed at least 14000. Leagues,) had the happiness to bring home the welcome News of his good Success.

But, to return to our Americans, they are credibly supposed to descend from the Tartars of Asia. For, besides that the West side of A­merica is disjoyned from Tartary but by a very small Streight, so that there is thence into these Country's a very quick and ready Passage; 'tis certain the Americans are most like the Tartars of any, in the whole course of their Life. To which add, that the West side of A­merica is far more populous than the East to­wards Europe or Africk; Which argues that those Western Parts were first Inhabited, and that from hence the rest was Peopled.

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What remain now is to give you, Philalethes, first the Division of the Northern America, and then that of the Southern, both of them accor­ding to the present State of those two great Peninsules.

The Northern America, may be fitly divided into these principal Parts;

Viz.

• Mexico, or
• New Spain,
• New Mexico,
• Florida,
• Virginia,
• Canada, or
• New France,
• Estotiland.

Mexico, the most Southern, the best, and most populous Part of all this Peninsule, has on the East the Gulf of Mexico, and on the West the South Sea. The same reaches from the Isth­mus of Panama Southward to Rio del Norte in New Mexico Northwestward above 400. Leagues, but the breadth of it is not propor­tionable. It is called Mexico, from the chief Province of that name, as this is from the chief City, the whole Kingdom is divided into three great Prefectures, or Governments, cal­led by the Spaniards Audiencas; viz. of Mexico, of Guadalajara or New Gallicia, and of Gua­timala, which comprehend several Provinces. And, as the Gulf borrows its name from hence, so the whole Peninsule is sometimes called from it Mexicana. This rich Kingdom belongs sole­ly [Page 124]to Spain, since the Conquest of it by Ferdi­nand Cortez, Anno 1519.

North of this Mexico you will find Nuevo Mexico, or the New Mexico; bounded Eastward with Florida, and Westward with Mare Verme­jo, which parts it from California.

Florida ly's full North of the Gulf of Mexi­co, and Carolina is counted part of it, lying near the Sea, and South of Virginia.

By Virginia, as a general Name, I mean all that Sea-Coast Country, which reaches North-Eastward from Florida as far as the Gulf (or Bay) of S. Laurence. And so it contains chiefly Virginia properly so called, New Sweden, the New Netherlands, New-England, and Acadia.

Canada, or New France, ly's on both sides of the River Canada. And on the West side you will find the Saguenay, a part of New France so called from a River of that name which runs into the Canada.

Estotiland comprehends those Regions that lie most towards the North and East. Bound­ed Eastward with the main Ocean; Northwards, with Hudsons Streights; Westward, with Hudson's Bay; and on the South, with Canada or New France. There is nothing but the Sea-Coast of it discovered. The same is also called Terra Corterealis, or Corterealis Ora, from Corterealis, a Portugueze, who in the year 1500 left his name unto it. It has likewise got the name of Terra de Labrador; and now the French call it Nouvelle Bretagne, that is, New Brittany, from [Page 125]a French Province of that name.

One Thing is Observable concerning this Pe­ninsule, that most of the Western Parts (as be­ing furthest from Europe) are still undiscove­red. But Northwards you will find some Parts of it, bearing the Name of New North-wales, New South-Wales, and West of these New Den­mark.

The Southern America I divide into these chief Parts.

Viz.

• Terra firma,
• Brasil,
• Paraguay,
• Magellanica,
• Chili,
• Peru,
• Amazonia.

Terra Firma, in Spanish Tierra, Firme, compre­hends those Regions which lie most towards the North. As Terra firma properly and spe­cially so called, the Governments (or Coun­try's) of Popayan, Cartagena, S. Martha, Rio de la Hacha, and Venezuela, the new Realm of Granada, Paria, Caribana, and Guiana. All which belong for the most part to Spain.

Brasil, which takes up the most Eastern Parts, and does chiefly belong to Portugal, is divided into several Capitanias (as the Portugueze call them) or Prefectures, the Principal of which is Capitania de Siara. The Rest are of a less com­pass, and bear for the most part the names of their chief places, or Principal Rivers. As [Page 126] Capitania de Para, de Maragnan, de Rio grande, Parayba, Tamaraca, Pernambuco, Bahia, Ilheos, Porto Seguro, Spiritu Santo, Rio Janeiro, and S. Vincente. But all this is only by the Sea­side, the Inland Parts being left (I suppose) for our Posterity to plant.

Paraguay ly's South and West of Brasil, and doth chiefly belong to the Spaniards. It is cal­led Paraguay, from the great River of that name, otherwise named Rio de la Plata, which runs through the midst of it. The same is at present divided into Paraguay properly so cal­led, Guayra, Parana, Uraguay, the Province of Rio de la Plata, Chaco, and Tucuman.

Magellanica ly's South of Paraguay, and reach­es to the very Streights of Magellan, where this Peninsule (like Africk) draws towards a point not unlike that of a Pyramis This wild Country has the Prospect, not only of the Streights aforesaid Southwards, but also of the North-Sed. Eastward, and part of if of the South Sea Westward.

Chili is a Sea-Coast Country, upon the South-Sea, West of Magellanica. Most part of which, and that towards the North, is subject to the Crown of Spain.

Peru, a Country famous for its Gold and Silver Mines, lies Northward of Chili, East of the South (or Pacifick) Sea; and is parted from North to South, almost in the midst, by the huge Mountains called Andes. The Coun­try is about 600. Leagues in length from North [Page 127]to South, but the breadth from East to West is not proportionable. From hence it is that some can the whole Peninfule by the name of Peruana, as they call the other from Mexico Mexicana.

This great and rich Kingdom was Conquer­ed by the Spaniards ten years after that of Mexico, viz. in the year 1522. Pizarro was the Man imployed in Chief in the Conquest of it, a Man basely extracted, and as sordidly brought up, who was fain at last to steal for shelter into America. Where being grown Rich and Bold by his Adventures, and being well informed of the Wealth of Peru, he un­dertook the Conquest of it, and at last per fas & nefas got it for the Crown of Spain.

Since which Time the Spaniards have divi­ded it into three Audiencas, or Prefectures. Viz. Audienca de Quito, which takes up the Northern Parts; Audienca de los Reyes, which contains the middle Parts, where you will find Peru properly so called; and Audienca de los Charcas, which takes up the Southern Parts.

By Amazonia I mean all those Inland and Unknown Countrys which lye betwixt Peru on the West and Brasil on the East, bounded North-wards with Terra-firma, Southward with Para­guay and Part of Peru. Called Amazonia from the Amazone, that great and prodigious River, which runs through the North Parts of this Country from West to East into Mar del Nort, or North Sea.

[Page 128]

Thus you have, Philalethes, a general Ac­count of the Known Parts of the World. In Terra Polaris Ar [...]ctica you will find Greenland, first discovered in the year 982: by Ericus Ru­fus; but little of it, besides the Sea-Coast, is known. Famous most of all for the Fishing of Whales hereabouts. East of Greenland lies Nova Zemla, of which nothing is discovered as yet besides the Western Shore. So that it is not known, whether it be an Island; or part of the Continent.

In Terra Australis, or towards it, you will find these Country's as imperfectly discovered as those. Viz. the Land of Papous, East of the Molucca's; and New Guinea, East of that. But some take the Land of Papous to be part of New Guinea. South of these is New Holland, not long since discovered by the Hollanders. But, whether it is an Island or Continent, we are as yet to seek.

I think we have run pretty well over the World. It is high time for us to rest our selves. But I desire, next time we meet, to learn the Meaning of the Circles, that so I may understand the use of Globes and Maps.

With all my heart.

The Seventh Discourse.

In our former Discourses you have had a general Account of the Real Parts of the Earth. Now I come to the Ima­ginary ones, I mean those Lines or Circles, supposed to go about the World, and accor­dingly drawn in Terrestrial Globes and Maps, for the better teaching and learning of Geo­graphy.

Pray, let me have their Definition.

A Globe is a compendious Repre­sentation of the Earth in its round Figure, with several Circles, and an exact Situation with the Names of its several Country's, Seas, chief Lakes and Rivers, Hills, Towns or City's.

A Map is either general, or particular. By a general Map is meant a Planisphere, or a Map of the whole Earth, describing the Old and New World by themselves, the first on the right hand, and the other on the left.

A particular Map is a Representation of a particular Part of the World, as of Europe, Asia, on Africa, the Northern, or Southern Ame­rica. Which are but particular Maps in re­spect of a Map of the whole World.

[Page 128]

'Tis true there are Maps indeed more par­ticular, such as give an account of a particu­lar Country, or of one Province or more of that Country. In which respect the Maps of Europe, Asia, Africk, and America be said to be general.

And so I come to the Circles. But first I begin with the Axel-tree of the World, which is a right Line imagined to pass through the Center or midst of the World, from one end of it to the other. The upper end of which Axel-tree is called the Pole Arctick, or North Pole; and the nether end opposite to that, the Pole Antarctick, or South Pole.

How many Circles are there?

There are eight principal Circles, four greater, and four lesser.

The greater Circles are

• The Equinoxial,
• The great Meridian,
• The Zodiack,
• The Horeon.

The lesser Circles,

• The Tropick of Cancer,
• The Tropick of Capricorn,
• The Arctick.
• The Antarctick.

The Equinoctial, otherwise called Aequator, and by Mariners the Line, is a great Circle going round the. Globe in the very midst be­twixt the two Poles. It is called Equinoctial, [Page 129]because when the Sun is come to this Circle, then is the Equinox, that is, the day and night are of an equal length. And it hath the name of Aequator, because it divides the World into two equal Parts, the one Northwards, the other Southwards. From whence comes the Distin­ction of Northern and Southern Latitude, that reaching from this Circle as far as the North Pole, and this from the same Circle as far as the South-Pole. Now this Circle is divided in­to 360. Parts called Degrees of Longitude, as shewing the Length of the World. Whereof the first 90. Degrees run from West to East, then 180. Degrees by the back-side of the Globe from East to West, and at last 90. Degrees more from West to East, all which make up the number of 360. Degrees.

The great Meridian is a Circle that go's round the Poles, and so divides the World likewise into two equal Parts. In Globes it is made commonly of Brass. The same has got the name of Meridian from the Latine Meridies, that is Noon day, because when the Sun is come to that Circle then 'tis Noon in the Place where­of it is the Meridian. And it is called great Meridian, in opposition to those lesser Meridi­ans which are to be seen in Globes and Maps. This is the Circle wherein are set down the 360. Degrees of Latitude, or Breadth of the World, divided into four times 90.

Now the Question is, which is the most pro­per place for the great or first Meridian to pass [Page 130]through. For our Modern Geographers differ much about it, which causes a great Confusi­on. Some follow still Ptolomy, who placed it in the Canary Islands; others have removed it more Westward to the Azores. Neither do these agree amongst themselves. For some will have it pass through S. Michael and S. Ma­ry, others through Corvo and Flores. For my part I don't admire an Innovation that causes so much Distraction; and, whatever they pre­tend to, the Remedy to be sure is worse than the Disease. Therefore it were much to be wished, that they would agree in this particu­lar, and unanimously fix their Meridian some­where, without which we cannot agree as to the Longitude of Places. One should think, that el Pico in Tenariffe might be a Place very fit for that purpose.

The Zodiack is a Circle to be seen in Globes, and general Maps, but not in particular ones. The same is a sloping Circle, crossing the Equi­noctial in two places, and dividing it into two equal Parts. It is called Zodiack, from the Greek word Zodion, that signifies a living Crea­ture. For it consists of Twelve Signs which are (as I said in a former Discourse) the Twelve chief Constellations of all the fixed Stars, and most of which are represented to us under the name and figure of living Creatures. The Use of this Circle is to shew the natural Mo­tion of the Sun, which in a years time runs over those Twelve Signs, and therefore those [Page 131]Signs are called the Houses of the Sun. Amongst which Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, are Northern; and the other six, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces, Southern.

I desire to know the Course of the Sun through those Signs.

Supposing you remember what I told you formerly of the Equinoxes and Solsti­ces, I shall only add, that those Twelve Signs answer to the Twelve Months of the Year, Aries to March, Taurus to April, and so forth; with this difference, that when the Sun comes to Aries for exemple 'tis about the 10th of March, and then is our Vernal Equinox. From whence the Sun proceeds to Taurus and Gemi­ni, till it comes to Cancer, and then is our Summer-Solstice. From Cancer it comes through Leo and Virgo to Libra, and there we have our Autumnal Equinox. From Libra it goes on through Scorpio and Sagittarius to the Sign of Capricorn, and then is our Winter-Solstice. From whence it comes up again, through Aquarius and Pisces, to Aries aforesaid. Thus the Sun passes every Month from one Sign to another, and Seasons follow one another. Thus we have the Vernal Equinox in March when the Sun is come to Aries, the Summer-Solstice in June when the Sun is come to Cancer, the Autumnal Equinox in September when it is come to Libra, and the Winter Solstice in December when it is come to the Sign of Capricorn. And, as the [Page 132]Twelve Signs answer to the Twelve Months of the Year, so the Degrees into which each of them is divided do answer pretty well to the Days of the Month. For every Sign con­tains 30. Degrees, so that all of them together make up 360. Degrees.

Now you made it out to me as clear as the Sun. But what Circle is the Horizon?

'Tis an outside Circle, not to be seen in Maps, but only in Globes and Spheres. And it is called Horizon, because it confines our sight, and divides both Heaven and Earth into two parts called Hemispheres, the one seen, and the other not seen. The Use of it is to shew the Rising and Setting of the Stars, and the four Quarters of the World. But, as we gene­rally conceive a Horizon, it is a moveable Cir­cle. For we can never so little remove from any place, but we make a new Horizon. So that it is with Horizons as with Meridians, of both which we may fancy an infinite number, whereof the Vertical or Perpendicular point han­ging over our heads is called Zenith, and that over the heads of our Antipodes Nadir.

In short, there are two kinds of Horizon, the one Rational or Intelligible, and the other Sensible. That reaches to the Firmament, and divides the whole World into two equal Parts, the one above and the other beneath our. Dwelling Place. Whereas the Sensible Horizon is only that part of the World which our sight can reach in a Plain, the rest of the World by rea­son [Page 133]of the Rotundity of the Globe being out of our sight.

And what are the Tropick Circles?

They are two Circles at an equal Distance from the Aequator, that is 23. De­grees and and a half; that of Cancer in the Nor­thern, and the other of Capricorn in the. Sou­thern Latitude. The same are called. Tropick from the Greek word Tropos, which signifies Re­turn; because, when the Sun is come to either of these Circles, it goes no further Northward or Southward, but go's back to the Aequator▪ For (as I told you before) when the Sun comes to the Tropick of Cancer, then, we have our Summer Solstice; and, when it gets to that of Capricorn, then is our Winter-Solstice. So that these Circles do mark the greatest Decli­nation of the Sun, that, is its furthest Distance from the Aequator. Now they borrow, their Names of Cancer and Capricorn from the two Signs so called, through which the Sun passes when he comes to those Circles.

As for the Arctick and Antarctick, they are two lesser Circles, each of them 66. Degrees and a half distant from the Aequator, the Ar­ctick Northward, and the Antarctick Southward. And, there being but 90. Degrees from the Aequator to each Pole, it follows that these Circles are each of them but 23. Degrees and a half from their respective Poles, viz. the Arctick from the Northern, and the Antarctick from the Southern Pole. Therefore some call [Page 134]them otherwise me Polar Circles, because near­est to the Poles.

Now the said four lesser Circles, viz. the Tropicks and Polar, serve to divide the World into five Parts called Zones.

I long to know the Meaning of these Zones.

Then you must know there is one Torrid, two Temperate, and two Frigid Zones. The Torrid Zone reaches from one Tropick Circle to another, and so takes up 47. Degrees of Latitude, which (at the rate of 20. leagues, or 60. miles, a Degree) comes to 940. leagues, or 2820. miles. In this Zone it is that almost all Africk, and the better part of the Southern America, lie; besides a small part of Asia, and of the Northern America. And it is called Tor­rid, or Over-hot, because of the great and constant Heat of it, caused by the Sun's con­tinual course and return betwixt the two Tro­picks where this Zone is placed. Which made the Ancients believe, that it could not be in­habited for heat. But 'tis found since by ex­perience, that it is not only Inhabited, but in some places most fruitful and pleasant to live in.

What d'ye call then the Temperate Zones?

There's one Northern, and the other Southern. The Northern, wherein we live, lies betwixt the Tropick of Cancer and the Arctick Circle; and the Southern, betwixt the Tropick of [Page 135] Capricorn and the Antarctick Circle. Each of them takes up 43. Degrees of Latitude, which comes to 860. Geometrical Leagues, or 2580. miles. Both called Temperate Zones, because lying (as they do) betwixt the Torrid Zone and the Frigid, they are so tempered with heat and cold, that neither of them is so hot as the Torrid, or so cold as the Frigid. In the Nor­thern Temperate Zone lies almost all Europe and Asia, and the greatest part of the Northern A­merica; and in the Southern, a small part of Africk, and almost one half of the Southern A­merica, besides what has been discovered of Terra Australis.

Now for the Frigid Zones.

These are also one Northern, the other Southern. And they both lie in the utmost Parts of the World, the Northern betwixt the Arctick Circle and the Arctick Pole, and the Southern be­twixt the Antarctick Circle and the Antarctick Pole. So that each of them contains 23. De­grees and a half, which comes to 470. Geo­metrical Leagues, or 1340. miles. And they are called Frigid, or Over-cold, because being extreamly remote from the Course of the Sun through the Zodiack they partake but a little of its heat, and have Its beams but ob­lique, and without any reflection. For which Reason, and because of their constant Dark­ness in Winter-time for several Months; the Ancient Geographers and Historians could not imagine these Zones to be at all Inhabited, no [Page 136]more than the Torrid for its exceeding Heat. But it proves a Mistake; though 'tis confessed, as to the Northern Frigid Zone which is, partly known to us, that it is, but thinly Peopled. In which Zone part of Norway and Lapland in Europe is situate, some part of Tartary in Asia, and Terra Borealis.

Thus much for the eight principal Circles, and the Use of them, Now let us take a view of those inferiour Circles, which are called Me­ridians and Parallels.

The Meridians, or Circles of Longitude, are those Lines which (like the great Meridian) go round the Globe from one Pole to the other. And the Parallels, or Circles of Latitude, are those which cross the Globe on both sides of the Ae­quator.

You may suppose, if you please, as many of either sort as there are Degrees. But, lest the Names of Places and Country's should be darkned with so many Lines, therefore in Globes and Maps these Circles do com­monly lie at ten Degrees distance of each other.

And, as by the Meridians you may find out the longitude of any Place in a Globe or Map; so by the Paralles, you may know the Latitude.

How so, Sophronius?

The Longitude you'll find thus, with a pair of Compasses. First, set one foot of your Compass in the place the Longitude whereof you desire to know, and the other in the next Meridian to it, whether it be on the [Page 137]right hand or the left. From thence draw down your Compasses, following still that Me­ridian till you come to the Aequator, and there mark upon what Degree of the Aequator the foot of your Compasses which was upon the Place do's rest. Then see upon the Aequator how many Degrees that is distant from the first Meridian, and that is the true Longitude of the Place.

But then one must be ruled right or wrong by the great Meridian that's set down in the Globe or Map.

If you dont like it, 'tis but adding or bating the number of Degrees which makes the difference.

The Latitude is to be taken thus. First set one foot of your Compasses upon the Place of which you design to take the Latitude, and the other upon the next Parallel, whether a­bove or beneath. Then draw your Compasses from that Place, following still that Parallel till you come to the Meridian which is marked with the Degrees of Latitude, and mark up­on what Degree the foot of your Compasses which you did draw from the Place doth rest. That you will find to be the true Latitude of the Place. And of that Latitude are all Places Parallel to that, how far soever they lie asunder, East and West.

From, what is said 'tis to be concluded, that all Places just under the great Meridian have no Longitude, and those under the Aequator no Latitude.

I apprehend you. Now I desire to know what is the meaning of Climates.

A Clime, or Climate, is such a Space of the Terr-Aqueous Globe as is included be­twixt two Parallels.

How many Climes then do you reck­on?

The Ancient reckoned but fourteen, that is, seven in the Northern, and as many in the Southern Latitude. Those in the Northern Latitude they called by the name of some fa­mous City, Island, River, or Hill, through which the middle Parallel of the Climate pas­seth; As [...]. And the Southern Climes, opposite to those, they called by the same Names, by putting only before them the Particle [...], &c.

But, to those fourteen Climes some, Geo­graphers have added two more, some five, and others ten.

What is the Use of those Climes?

To find out how long is the longest Day in any Place whatsoever. For you must know, that the longest Day under the Aequa­tor is equal with the night, that is 12. hours of Day and as many of Night. But the further you go from the Aequator, either Northwards or Southwards, the longest Day is longer by half an hour in every Clime, till they come to the length of 24 hours, that is, without [Page 139]any night. Which length attained, they in­crease no more by hours, but by Months, till they come to the length of half a year, which is just under the Poles.

But this Division of the Earth into Climes is not generally approved of, and that for these two Reasons. First, because it is as easie to find out the Length of Days for any Place as to find out the Climates; and secondly, be­cause of their vast Inequality.

Therefore, if we must divide the Terr-aque­ous Globe into Climes, the best way will be to divide each Latitude into nine Climes, and so each Clime shall equally consist of ten De­grees. Thus the Situation of any Place will be presently found out by the Degrees of La­titude. As for Exemple, Paris, Rome, and Venice, being situate betwixt 40 and 50 Degrees of Northern Latitude, shall be counted in the fifth Climate; London and Amsterdam, betwixt 50 and 60, in the sixth Clime.

But then how shall one find out the Length of Days?

By the Degrees of Latitude, without any more ado; as you have it in the follow­ing Table. Where by the 30 Minutes you must understand half an hour; For, as a Degree, so is an Hour divided into 60 Minutes.

[Page 140] [Page 141]

Now, from 66 Degrees 31 Minutes to the Pole it self set at 90 Degrees, we must account by the Months. As

Now, Philalethes, you must know there are several Ways of measuring the Earth. As by Miles, in most part of Europe; by Leagues, in France and Spain; and by Versts, in Moscovy. Neither do's any Nation make use every where exactly of one and the same Measure. For the Leagues in France, as the Miles in England, are in some places very short, and in others as long again. But, according to the Geometrical Measure a League is to contain 3000. Paces, a German Mile 4000, and other Miles (as English and Italian) 1000. So that there go three of our Miles to a League, and four to a German Mile. Whereas they reckon four Moscovian Versts to [Page 142]League. Thus a Degree is 20 Leagues, which comes to 60 English or Italian Miles, and but 15 German. And so the Compass of the Earth being 360 Degrees comes to 7200 Leagues, 21600 English or Italian Miles, 5400 German.

But how shall I do, Sophronius, to find out the true Distance of any two Places, either in a Globe or Map?

In order to that you must first un­derstand, that two Places may differ three manner of ways, that is in Latitude only, in Longitude only, or in both.

If they differ only in Latitude, 'tis but taking with a pair of Compasses the difference of La­titude, then summing up the Degrees it comes to, and multiplying the said Degrees by Miles or Leagues, according to the foresaid Geo­metrical Measure. And, if there be any odd Minutes, allow for every Minute an English Mile, or for every three Minutes a League.

But, if the two Places be in the same Lati­tude, and differ only in the Longitude, then take with your Compasses 5 or 10 Degrees of Longitude, more or less, according to the distance of the Places. Take them upon the Equinoctial, in the Longitude answering to the said Distance. Then look how many times the Distance taken with your Compasses is comprehended in the space that lieth betwixt the two Places, and so compute how many Degrees it comes to. And, if so be there remains any odd space not fully answering the first [Page 143]wideness of your Compasses, then take that odd space with your Compasses being straightned and made fit to it. That done, multiply the whole by Leagues or Miles, and you will find the Product to be the true Distance of the Places.

Lastly, if the two Places differ both in Lon­gitude and Latitude, do but take with your Compasses the true Distance of the two Lati­tudes upon the first Meridian. Then look, as before, how many times the foresaid Distance taken with your Compasses is comprehended in the space that lieth betwixt the two Places, and multiply the Distance accordingly. Which being multiplied again by 20 for Leagues, or 60 for Miles, you will find the Product there­of to be the true Distance of the one Place from the other. And, if there be any odd space remaining, do in this Case as in the former.

Thus you may take the Distance of any two Places in a Globe, or General Map, as also in the Maps of Europe, Asia , Africk, the Northern, or Southern America. As for other particular Maps, they have Scales, whereby you may readily find out the Distance of any two Places there­in mentioned. And so I have done with this Part of Geography.

What remains is to give you a short De­scription

[Page 144]

Of

• Amphiscii,
• Periscii,
• Heteroscii,
• Antoeci,
• Perioeci,
• Antipodes.

I have heard indeed of Antipodes, but I know not what's meant by the rest.

First you must know, the first three are so called in respect of their Shadows, and the other three in respect of their Site and Position.

Those are called Amphiscii, that dwell in the Torrid Zone, between the two Tropicks. For their Shadows are both ways, sometimes to the South, and sometimes to the North.

Periscii are such as dwell beyond the Polar Circles, whose Shadows are on all sides of them.

Heteroscii are those that dwell in either of the two Temperate Zones. Called Heteroscii, because their Shadows reach but one way; viz. in own Zone to the North only, as in the other to the South only.

Those we call Antoeci that dwell under the same Meridian, and are equally remote from the Aequator; but with this difference, that the one is in the Northern, and the other in the Sou­thern Latitude. So that the Summer of the one is the others Winter.

Perioeci are those that dwell in the same Pa­rallel, or Circle of Latitude; but so distant

[Page] [Page]

Septentrio

Oriens

Meridies.

Occidens.

[Page 145]

East and West, that (though the Season of the Year and the Length of Days be to both alike, yet) it falls out the one's Mid-night is the o­thers Noon.

By the Antipodes we mean those that dwell feet to feet, so that a right Line drawn from the one into the other passeth from North to South through the Center of the World. And these are distant 180 Degrees from each other, it being half the Compass of the Earth. They differ in Seasons of the Year, Length of Days, Rising and Setting of the Sun.

These Antipodes are odd kind of Crea­tures, and I do nor yet understand them tho­roughly. My Brains are a little giddy, and methinks I see them tumbling down to Heaven.

So our Antipodes might think of us, and yet you see we stand upon our Legs, and eve­ry where the Heavens above (not under) us.

Well, I will beat it (if I can) into my head.

Do but mind the following Scheme; and, if that do not convince you, nothing will.

See the Scheme.

This is pretty, and now I see clearly what a gross Error I was in.

It is, I confess, an unpardonable Er­ror in these Times, when the World has in a manner Through-Lights made in it. But, be­fore the New World was found out, the Do­ctrine [Page 146]of the Antipodes was counted an incredi­ble ridiculous Fable. S. Augustine, Lactantius, and some others of the Ancient Writers made no more of it. Venerable Beda joyned with them in their Error. And 'tis observable, that Virgilius Bishop of Saltzburg in Germany was con­demned of Hereresy by Pope Zachary in the year 745. for having writ a Book inducing the belief of the Antipodes. For which he was com­plained of by Boniface Arch-Bishop of Mentz, as if some damnable Doctrine had been design­ed under hand by it. And so the poor Bishop of Saltzburgs Misfortune was to be Learned in a Time of Ignorance.

Well. But you don't tell me all this while how I shall find my Antipodes.

When you have a Globe, and desire to know your Antipodes, it is but turning the Globe East and West, till you bring your Dwel­ling Place just to the Horizon. And then ob­serve the Degree. If the Place in the Northern Latitude be West from the Meridian, 'tis but telling so many Degrees on the East side of the Meridian, and there will be your Antipodes.